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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at |http: //books .google .com/I rf ARY M, BARCLAY, I 1201 Dillon St., Va. ST. LOUIS. MO. HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRARY FROM THE LIBRARY OF MRS. MARY M. BARCLAY of St Louis, Missouri DR. JULIUS HOWARD PRATT MRS. LUCY E. MCCLELLAND Dr. ROBERT BARCLAY V 3 2044 096 988 605 i u ,jf llCklfM c.\ CXM^iOV^ . r-^: ' -^ .•^/.-\y A BHORT^&YSTEM •* OP , / POLITE LEARNING, BEING AJf EPITOME *'^* OF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES; DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. i . BY AN EMINENT WRITER OP PHILADELPHIA. A laste of every sort of knowledge is necessary to form the mind; and is the ohiy way to give the under eilBtit Dfits capacity. —Locke. the ohiy way to ^ve the understanding its due improvement, to U|e fUtt KINTH AMERICAN EDITION, IMPROVED. PUBLISHED BY MCCARTY & DAVIS, NO. 171, MARKET-STREET. SUtx0typed by J. Hoioo. HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRARY « FROM THE LIBRARY OF MRSi MARY M. BARCLAY OCTOBER 14, tft^ ■^» Ea$tem Dittrkt of P«nn«yleaiUa, to wit : BE rr REMEMBERED. That on the leventeenth day of April, in »!»««*# the fiftieth year or the Independence of the United States of a. S. * America, A. D. 1826, M'Carty & Davis, of the said district, •*****« ii^yQ deposited in this office the title of a Book, Qie right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit: "A short system of Polite Learning, being an Epitome of the Arta and Sciences; designed for the use of Schools, by an eminent writer of Philadelphia. * A taste of every sort of knowledge is necessary to form the mind ; and is the only way to give the understanding its due improve- ment, to the full extent of its capacity.' Locke. Ninth American EditioB| improved.*' In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United Stfites, entituled. " An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copief or Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during the times therein mentioned ;" — And also to the Act, entitled, ^' An Act. supplementary to an Act, entitled, " An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors ana Proprietors of such Copies, during tlie times therein men- tionei}," and extending the l)enefit6 thereof to the arts of designing, en« graving, and etching Idstorical and other Prints." ^ D. CALDWELL, Clerk of tbe Eaatem Dtotrict of Pennsylvania, >-< PREFACE. IN presentii^ the moth American edition of this ralaable little work to the public, the editors feel gratified to observe, that, though not greatly enlarg- ed, it has, in their apprehension, been much im- proTed. Numerous and important additions and alterations have been made in Tarious parts of it. Some articles have been considerably enlarged— others, propor- tionably pruned and condensed. 3everal have been rewritten and corrected ; and not a few entire new ones, framed and inserted. The language, punctua- tion, and definitions have all undergone a careful revision, and been rendered as perspicuous as pos- sible ; — the civil divisions, and other particulars in the Geographic department, have been duly con- formed to present facts ; and the more modem dis- coveries and improvements in natural philosophy, and other branches of science, introduced, in place of the less accurate speculations of former times ; while the whole of the numerous and varied items which compose its contents, have been so classed and altered in their arrangement, as to render t]^e work much more systematic and instructive than yi PREFACE. any of the preceding editions. A^d it is, upon the whole, confidently believed, that a greater quantum and variety of matter, useful, important, scientific, and interesting, than this little volume now contains, is nowhere to* be found, within the same compass'. The work now appears- in a stereotype form, dis a pledge to our schools, teachers, and other individ- uals wishing to avail themselves of it, that a constant and regular supply shall, in future, be always at their command. The Arts and Sciei^ceSy by being wrapped up in the learned languages, ^d obscured by a multitude of technical terms, have long been held beyond the reach and capacity, not only of youth in general, but of maturer years also; especially, where the advantages of education have been limited. This epitome, however, will, it is hoped, bring them to the level of th6 most moderate capacity ; and, with- out much expense either of time or money, furnish a tolerably correct outline and general idea of all the principal branches of useful and Polite Learning Philadelphia, J\Iarch 25, 1826. CONTENTS. Page Of Arts and Sciences, ..••••.•••• 9 Theology, . ...... .... . 11 Religion, • 12 Philosophy, ..... . ....... ..... • . 14 Physics, . ... . • • • 16 Mechanics., 16 Hydrostatics, 19 Specific Gravity, . . ...... • . • t^^ Hydraulics, ... • . • . .\ iJb. Acoustics, ... • ... . .,...• . . . ibm Pneumatics, . . ... • . . . ... . i6. Meteors, 22 Electricity, . .... . . . . . . 23 Lightning and Thunder, «5. The Aurora Borealis, 25 The Ignus Fatuus, 26 Wind, 27 TheP.ainbow, . 30 Hail, 32 Snow, ^ • . 33 Rain, , . 34 FogandDew, • .... 35 Waterspouts, 36 The Tides,. 37 Earthquakes, ............ 39 Volcanoes, ^ ... 40 Mineralo^, . . ,..»•. ^ ... t2^ Architecture, p ... r ....... 44 Painting, ....••.• j» • .... 45 Sculpture, 48 Ethics, 50 Jurisprudence, .. . . i .. . • .. . • • • «' . t&. Government, . .. .. . • .. • ,. .. ^ • • • . 52 Jrolitics, _. . ,_. . .._.....,• ^ .• ,. f •,. ', . t5|p , Commerce, . tK . Liogic, . • • « % s « % ^ i TIU . CONTENTS. Bhetoric and Oraloryi S9 Irapes or FigQrcB, 61 Graminar, 66 Language, 67 Poetry, 69 Music, 77 Optics, 79 MathemaliDi, SO Arithmetic, • 81 Geometry^ 82 . Metaphysici, 84 Astronomy, ib. _ The Solar ^atem 65 The Fixed Slan, 93 Geography, 93 Europe, 100 Asia, 105 Africa, 109 America, 113 Nortb America, . . 115 British Coloniei, 116 United States. ib. Meiico, 125 South America, 1S6 The Weat Indies 137 Chronology, 129 Myttmlogy, . 13B The Celestial Deities, ib. The Terrestrial Deities, 144 The Marine Deities, 148 The Infernal Deities, 149 lie Subordinate Deities, 153 The Demi-Gods, 153 History, JST Physic m Anatomy, ib. Surgery, ^ IB3 Fbannacy, &. Chemistiy, . A, SHORT SYSTEM OF POLITE LEARNING* OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. Question. What is meant by a Science? Answir. A Science is a system of any branch of knowledge, comprehending its doctrine, rea- son, and theory ; without any immediate appli- cation of it to the use^ of life. ^^^ Q. What is an Art? A. An Art is a collection of rules and precepts, for doing a thing with certainty, ease, and accu- racy. Science \& knowledge in theory ; %Art is know- ledge in practice. Botany is a science; Garden- ing, an art. Q. How are the Arts divided ? jfj A. The Arts are divided into liberal and mechanical Q. What are the Liberal Arts? A. The Liberal Arts are those that are in- genious, and cultivated without any immediate regard to the profit arising from them ; as poetry, music, and painting; rhetoric, grammar, and sculpture. • 10 POLITE LEARNING. The Uherdl or polite arts are nearly allied to the sciences, and are, indeed, in many instances, the same with them. Music, for example, tnay be ranl^ed eithei with the arts or sciences, or both. As ^ a science, it teaches the just disposition, quantity, and relation of sounds. As an art, it enables us to express those sounds with facility and correctness. Q. Why are they called Liberal Arts? A. They are termed Liberal Arts because the ancients allowed them to be studied only by the liberij or free persons. - ( In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciemces^ was made up of what was then termed, The Seven ZAkeral Arts; viz. Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Music, Arithmetic, Geometry, and Astronomy. The fine arts are such of the mechanic arts as re- quire the union of peculiar ingenuity, taste, and skiU, in the artist; as, Painting, Sculpture, &:c. Q. What are the Mechanic Arts? A. The Mechanic Arts are those wherein the hand and body are more concerned than the mind, and which are cultivated for the sake of the profit arising f^om them : as cabinet-making, ship-bu4[ding, turnery, weaving, masonry, and the' like; popularly known by the name of trades. Q. Why are they termed Mechanic Arts ? A. They are denominated Mechanic Arts from the latin word [machina,'} signifying a machine; as they are all practised by the use of certain machines or instruments. Q. What are the Principal Sciences ? A, The Principal Sciences are theology, phi- THEoiiOcnr. 11 kMophy, And jurisprudence) {^yatCt ritetorie, grammar, poetry, and matbematica. THEOLOGY. » Q. What is Theology? A. Theology is the science which instructs 03 in the knowledge of God, and Divine things, and teaches us the manner in which we should* serve our Creator. Q. From what is the word Theology derived ? A. Thh word Theology is derived from the Greek words [Theos logos,'] signifying {he wot'd of God. Q. How is Theology divided ? A« Theology is divided into natural and re- vealed. Q. What is Natural, and what Revealed Theology ? A. Natural Theology is the knowledge we have of God from his works, from the light of nature, and from reason. kevealed Theology is that knowledge of God, which we obtain from revelation. Q. To whom was the title of Theologist, or Divine, first given ? A. The title of Theologist or Divine was first given to St. John, the evangelist; who was, by that title, distinguished from the oth^ three evangelists; because their gospels contain only tfae history of Chrijst, but that of St. Jo\\\)k^^ai!^ 'ifl POLITE IMABmNG. lishes* liis. eternal divinity y as the i word of and his incarnation. RELIGION. Q. What is Religion? A. Religh>n is that worship and homage V man owes to God, as his Creator, Preservei Redeemer. ^. " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wi 'a good understanding have all they that kee commandments." *DAy " Be particular not td neglect religion in the c . tion of your children. In vain will you ende to conduct them by another path. If they are d - yoii; if you expect from them credit or comfort; religion, must be derived their happiness, and own." FATHER GIRD " Religion, soother of all our keenest sorrows^ s and refiner of all our real joys, shed thy hea^ influence on our souls; direct, animate, and crow our pursuits; pervade and consecrate. all our thoi words, and actions: so, shall we answer the desij • God in our creation, taste true happiness in thi and arise to complete an immortal felicity in the i to cotoe." DR. At ^Q. What is the foundation of Religion? A. Religion is founded on the existence Supreme Being, who requires the love, ser and adi&ration of his creatures. Q. Whence do we derive our knowledf th^kity and homage we owe to God ? • RELIGION. I'S A. We obtain our knowledge of I3ie dttty and homage we owe to God, from the dictates of rea- son and the light of nature, bi)t especially from tfie sacred Scriptures. Q. Who is the Author of the Scriptures ? A. God himself is the Author of the Scrip- tures; — ^he spake them by the mouths of his holy and 1nspii!. Q. How is the Jewish Religion founded ? A. The Jewish Religion is founded upon thie law given by Moses to the Israelites, as cor tained in the Old Testament. Q. Who was tbe smthor of ^e Christiaii .le- ligion? A. The author of the Christian Rcll^iou^ vt^ml Jesusj Christ, the Son of GoAy "^^^ ^'^^^ "^^ B 14 POLITE LEARNING. bosom of the Father, to dwell in flesh and biood here on earth: where, after performing many miracles, and works of beneficence, he was cru- cified and buried; but, the third day, he rose from the dead; and shortly after ascended to the Father. Q. What is the Pagan Religion ? A. The Pagan Religion is die idolatrous rites performed by the Pagans, or heathen nations; who worship and adore false gods^ or give those honours to creatures, and the works of man's hand, which are due only to God. Q. When, and by whom, was the Mahome tan Religion founded? A. The Mahometan Religion was founded in the Seventh century, by the impostor Mahomet; whose whole doctrine is a ridiculous compound of Paganism, Judaism, and Christian heresies. Q. What are the advantages derived to society from true Religion ? i A. The advantages derived from true Reli- gion are many — it inspires sincerity in all men, Justice in princes, integrity in magistrates, obe- dience to the laws, honesty in trade, union in families, and, above all, and what is better than all, it secures, to those who possess it, everlast- ing happiness in the world to come. PHILOSOPHY. Q. What is Philosophy ? A. Philosophy, properly speaking, is the PHYSICS. 15 Science of Wisdbm ; or, it is the employment of the human mind in examining and explaining the nature, modifications and enects of mattetf the principles of moralitt/, the operations of reason, and the properties of abstract or immaterial things. This last, is called meta- physics, Q. From what is the term' Philosophy de- rived ? A^ The term Philosophy is derived from the (k^ek words phitos, to Ipve, and sophia, wis- dom. Q. How may Philosophy be divided i * A. Philosophy may be divided into Physics, or natural philosophy; Ethics, or moral philo- fophy; Logic, and Metaphysics. PHYSICS. Q. Of what do Physics treat? A. Physics, or Natural Philosophy, treat of the nature or modifications of matter, and ex- plain the Various phenomena of the material world. Physics are also called physiology, Q. What is Matter? A. Matter is the general name of every thing or substance that has lengthy breadth, and thick* ness, • Q. What are the properties of M^lXftx'i It POLITE LIJAWVING. At The inherent properties of, Mfttt^r, aj» ^Udityy divisibility y mobility j ^n^. inertness. Tlie solidity of a body prevents any other substance from occupying the same place at the same time. Divisib^JUy is that property of a body by which its parts may be separated. Mohility, a capability of being moved. JnertnesSy without a disposition to move. • ' ■ . ■ • ,*, • . . ■ i To matter also belong the forces of attraction, repulslou, aiid.gravity. • Attraction in bodies is their tendency to approach each other. Repulsiion^ a tendency to rej^^, or separate from caph othjer ; and . fhraviJty, ibte tehlehcy of all bodies towards the ceiftre of the earth. Q. What is Motion? A. Motion implies a continued and successive change of place; and without it nothing can be produced or destroyed. To motion belongs the force that produces it — ^the ^^ntiiy of matter moving-7-the velocity and directipiik — the 8pac^ — ^the time — and the momentum. ^ Q, What is the Centre of Gravity? A, The Centre of Gravity, in any body^ is that point about which all its parts do exactly balance each other. MECHANICS. Q. What are Mechanics ? A. Mechanics are a science which considers MECHANICS. 17 motioii and moving bodies, their nature and laws, with the effect of mechanic powers and their various combinationSi in the construction of machines or engines. That part of mechanics which considers the motions of bodies, arising from weight or gravi- ty, is generally called statics. Q. What is meant by Mechanic powers? A By Mechanic powers are meant those ma- chines which are used for raising greater weights, or overcoming greater resistances, than could be effected by natural strength, without them : the power, or strength, being applied to one part of the machine ; and the weight, or resistance, to another. Q. How many Mechanic powers are there ? There are six Mechanic powers: the lever, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw. « Q. Please, to describe each. A. The lever is an inflexible bar, turning on a supporting prop, as its centre of motion. There are three kmds of levers : 1. When the prop is between the weight and the power ; as, iron-crows, pincers, and scissors. 2. When the weight, or resistance, is between the prop and the power ; as, the oars of a boat, and knives which are fixed at the point 3. When the power is between the weight and the prop ; of which sort, are, the bones of a man's arm, and the wheels of clocks and watches. • The wAeei and axle are contxVv^^ Ok\&^^ ^^ b2 If POLITE LEABJfflNG. fhe raising of ^ight$ to a coasideribhle beight; the power being applied to the rim of the wheel^ aiid the weight drawn up by a rope wiQding round the axle. Th^ pulley is a little wheel or rundle, having a ch^oinel round it, and turning on. an axis, with a rope which rests in its channel, and has the power applied at one end, and the weight at the other. An assemblage of these is called a system of pulleys; some of which are in a block, that is £lx^d; and others in a blpck, which is moveable^ and ri$es with the weight. ^ j^ji inclined plane is like the chamfered part pf an, edgetool, which is ground down only on one side, to the edge. i ' _A ^dge^ in the common form, is like two jiiclined planes, joined together at their bases. , The ^cretf; may be considered as an inclined plane, wrapped round a cylinder^ which is turh^ ed by a winch or lever. It is of great efficacy in raising vyeights, or iri , pressing bodies • closely together. Of these six simple machines, all the most comppund engines in the world consist As 1:he screw includes the inclined plane, and two in; pUned planes make the wedge, wc have all the m,^hanical powers combined in the eoomioa jacky if it be aided by a fly-wheel ; for, then we have alsa the lever, the wheel and axle, and the pulleys. /PNEUMATICSi . iW HYDROSTATICS. Q. What are Hydrostatics ? A. Hydrostatics is that science which treats of the weight and action of fluids. A duid is a body whose parts are easily moved among themselves, and readily yield to any impression. Fluids $ite either non-elastic and incompressi- ble; as water, wine, oil, mercury; or elastic, and compressible; ;aB» air, gas, &c. Q. What is meant by Specific Gravities? A,- By Specific Gravities'*^© mean the relative weight whijch equal bulks of different bodies, have to each other. It is by weighing them in water, and thus cOmparitg their weight with thfiU; pf. water, that the specific gravities are found. Q. What do Hydraulics teach ? . A. Hydraulics teach us how to estimate the swiftnesj and force of fluids in lAotion. All w^ter w:orks, mills, pumps, &c. come under' the notice of hydraulics. Q. What is Acoustics? ' A. Acoustics is the doctrine of soninds. All sonorous bodies,, whilst sounding, are in a state of vibration, and communicate, similar vibrations to th« surrounding air, which thus convey sound. [Se^ music] PNEUMATICS. Q. Of what do Pneumatics tr^jai^ ^ A. Tie science of Pneunv»X\^^ X^c^'aXa 5^1 "^^ 20 POLITE LEARNING. mechanical properties of elastic or aerial fluids; such lis their weight, density, compressibility, and elasticity, Q. What are the properties of Air ? A. Air is a transparent, invisible, elastic, and compressible fluid, about 900 times lighter than water, and capable of almost indefinite' expan- sion.* It is essential to animal life and the !growth of plants. Q.. What is to be understood by the Atmos- phere? A. The Atmosphere is all that mass of air which encompasses tiie earth to the height ot many miles, moves along with it in its annual and diurnal motions, in which the clouds and vapour float, which is the medium of sound, and • which we constantly breathe. Q. Of what is pure Atmospheric Air com- posed? • » A. Pure Atmospheric Air is composed of three gaseous substances: viz. Of oxygen gas, . . . 22 parts, ^ Makinir Of nitrogen gas, . . 77 parts, k tocether Of carbonic acid gas, 1 part, 3 ^ ^ ' 100 parts, or pure air. Q. .What is Oxygen ? * Mr. Boyle found by exp^ment, that air, by its ehu> ticity, would so expand itself as to occupy 13,769 times more space than contained it before. And we know that air may be compressed to 138th part of the space it natu- raijy occapies. Its expansion and compressibility may, 'A^'rerer^ TO coQsidered as almost \n&m\ib. , PNEUMATICS, r M Ak Lightning is a large, bright fiame> d^s^^ !^ POLITfi LEARPJlKG. swiftly through the air; of momentary duration^ and coiaponly attended with thunder. Q. iS>w is this Meteor actounted for ? ^. Lightning, in the present advanced stati» of electricity, is ^universally allowed to be an electrical phenomenon : for, as before observed^ it has been proved by a variety of experiments, that the lightning of electricity, and the light- ning which glares in the clouds, are precisely the same, both in kind and operation. Q, What is the cause of Lightning ? A. Lightning is caused by a discharge of the superabundant electricity of one cloud into an** other, or into some part of the earth which is negatively electrified. ' : « According to the theory of Franklin, when the ait in one place, is electrified positively,* and in anotliet negativelv, it causes particular clouds and (KfTerent parts of the earth, to possess opposite electripities; so that on their approiach within a certain distance, a dis- charge is made from the one into the other ;[ and in ibid diflchaxge^a flash of lightning is observed. ' Q. How is Thunder produced ? A. Thunder is produced by a concussion ifi ' the air, from an electrical explosion; and the ! rattling noise we hear, i^ probably the effect of ^ the sound, carried rapid lj;r by the agitated vSlJ;' among the clouds, which hang irregularly around one above another. ,!, ''' When any body |)osie8ses mjare than its ^naUA'ot of J^e electric fluid, it .is said tc) be pontiveiy t^ Moa j^Jien leifs, neffoikety. ' ^~ AURORA BOREALIS. 28 Q. What is the reason that thunder, is not heard till some time after the lightning is seen ? A. The reason that thunder is not heard till some time after the lightning is seen, is, that sound is much longer in arriving at our ears, than light is at our eyes : for, light moves almost instantaneously; but sound moves only at the rate of 1142 feet in a »^nd. Q. I have heard of tni^^rbolts, and of their strange effects: pray, what^re they ? A. What is vulgarly calKd a^thunderbolt, is only lightning when it acts w^th extra. 26 POLITE LEARNING. luminous meteor, showing itself in the night it* ter a dry season, chiefly in the northern parts of the atmosphere; and, hence, the vulgar give it the name of northern, lights, or streamers. Q. Pray, describe this metebr? A. The Aurora Borealis appears most com^ monly in the form of an arch; partly bright, and partly dark; but always transparent, and usually of a red colour, inclining to yellow. It sends out frequent coruscations of pale light, which seem to rise from the horizon in a pyramidical and undulating form, and shoot witih great velo- city toward the zenith, or that point which is immediately over the head of the spectator. Q. How is it accounted for ? A. The Aurora Borealis is deemed an elec- trical phenomenon, and supposed to be occasion- ed by the flashing of electric fire, from pbsitive towards negative parts of the atmosphere, at a great distance, and in the upper region, where the resistance is least; and that it appears chiefly in the northern parts, because the alteration in the heat of the air is there the greatest OF THE IGNUS FATUUS. Q. What is £he Ignus Fatuus ? A. The Ignus Fatuus is a commbn ignited mf teor; chiefly seen at night, in meadows, marshr and other moist places. It is known among f ru}g^ by the appellations^ Will'-vHth-a-wii^ aod t/acA-mtA'a-lantern* WIND- 27 Q. How is this phenomenon explained ? A. The Ignus Fatiius is ascribed, by late dis- coveries, to inflammable air, arising from the pu- trefaction and decomposition of vegetable sub- stances in water, and taking fire by means of the electrical matter contained in fogs. In short, positive and negative electricity in the air, with a proper ^quantity of moisture to serve as a con- ductor, will readily account for these, as well as for falling stars, so called, and other fiery phe- nomena. OF ^IND. Q. What is Wind? A. Wind is air put into motion, more or less rapid, by which it flows in currents from one region to another. ^ What are the principal causes of this mo- tion or agitation? A. The principal causes of the motion or agi- tation of the air, are local alterations in the state * of the air, by means of heat. For, when the ait is heated over one part of the earth more than over another, the warmer or rarefied air becomes specifically lighter than the rest, and is therefore overpoised by it, and raised upwards; the higher parts of it difiusing themselves every way over the top of the atmosphere; while the* neighbour- ing air below, rushes in on all sides, till the equi- librium is restored. Hence f we may account a\ao tot \!ftfc ^^^w^wsis^ 28 POLITE LEARNING. of smoke in a chimney; and for the rushing of the air, through the keyhole of a door, or any small chink, into a room where there is a fire. \ Q. How are the Winds divided ? A. The Winds are divided into four principal ones; the east, west, nort;h, and south; which take their names from tlie four cardinal points of .the world. Q. What is the nature of each ? • A. The east tvind is damp; because it comes from the bosom of the Atlantic, where it im- bibes large quantities of vapour;— the westf com- ing from temperate regions across the American continent, is pleasant, pure, and exhilarating; — the north wind is cold, because it comes from the frigid zotie, or countries remote from the in- fluence of the sun;^ — and the souths coming from the torrid zone, is warm. Q. Why are the Winds deemed benefici^J ? A. The Winds are deemed beneficial, not only on account of their use in moving various ma- iihines, and immense importance in navigation, •but because they serve to purify and refresh the atmosphere, to convey the heat or cold of one region to another, and to produce a circulation of vapours from the ocean to inland countries. But, though their effects, on the whole, may be of great benefit, their violence is sometimes very detr^ mental. Q. What is a Whirlwind ? A. A Whirlwind is a violent and impetoil rushing in of the air from all points, in a cin WIND. 29 lar or whirKng manner j so as to threaten de- struction to all around. It is produced by some great and very sudden change ip a particular part of the atmosphere by means of a cloud, or some electrical cause. When these causes are numerous and very vio- lenty accompanied with lightning and thunder, the wind becomes so furious and terrible, that it overthrows houses, roots up trees, and destroys every thing in its course. This is denominated a Hurricane, Q. What is the ordinary velocity of Wind.^ A. The velocity of Wind, in what is termed a gentle breeze, may be from four to six or eisht miles an hour; a strong breeze or brisk Wind will travel perhaps from ten to fifteen miles an hour; and a Hurricane or Tempest, probably not less than fifty or sixty miles. The Air is often observed, in different reeions, to move in contrary currents; and this, sJmost always, previous to thunder. Q. What are Clouds ? A. Clouds are a quantity of condensed va- pours, suspended in the atmosphere. JQ^ How are they formed ? A. Clouds are formed from a collection of watery particles, raised from .the earth by solar and subterraneous heat The particles, at their first rise, are too minute and separate to be per- ceived; but meeting in their ascent, with a greater degree of cold, they are condensed, and their ^«3e^ united^ 9oasU> peflect ligYit, widi Vs^wbr -hSk^^^^ C2 30 POLITE LEARNING. * • Q. At what height do you suppose tibe Clouds to be suspended ? A. The Clouds are suspended from about a quarter of a mile to two miles in height, accord- ing to their specific gravity, and to the elasticity or density of the atmosphere. They are frequent- ly visible below the tops of very high hills. Q. May we then be sometimes above the Clouds ? ;• A. Yes, considerably: in mountainous coun- tries, it is no unusual thing to see tl;ke clouds pouring down in rain upon the vallies below, while a clear sunshine is enjoyed around you upon the mountains. Q. What is the cause of the various forms and colours of the Clouds? A. The various forms of the Clouds arise from their loose texture, which allows them to change into any form, according to the different currents of the air: and their colour is owing to their particular situation with regard to the sun, and the different reflections of his light It appears from the observable motion of the Clouds, that there are different currents in the air, at the same time, and in the same quarter^ line under the other. OF THE RAIM50W. Q. What is a Rainbow? i ^. A Rainbow is a meteor in the form f^ lUCVBOW. SI fl arch, eidiibited in a rainy atmosphore) opposite tp the sun. Q. Of what colours does it consist ? A. The colours of the Rainbow are, begin- ning from the upper part, red, orange,, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet; which are called me seven primary colours: for all other colours, are composed of some of them. • Every- ray of light is a compound body; con- sisting of these seven colours; but mixed in such proportions, as to produce the appearance of white. As these colours possess dijBTerent de- grees of frangibility, they are easily separated. Let a ray of light pass through a drop of water, and the violet will suffer a greater refraction than the red; consequently, they will be separa- ted. Q, How is the Rainbow formed ? A. The Rainbow is formed by the rays of the sun being refracted in the drops of falling rain, and thence reflected to the eye of the spectator, who is between the sun and the rain. Q. How are the various colours produced? A. The various colours of the Rainbow are produced by the different refractions of the rays, transmitted to the eye from several drops; one higher than another; the rays least refracted pro- ducing red; those most refracted, violet; and the intermediate ones, the other colours, in the order before mentioned. Q. I have sometimies observed two hows^o'ML jibove the other; how are lYve^e iwi^wMj^jg^ W"^ 39 POLITE LEABNINO. A. When two Rainbows are formed, the iht rior and stronger one is produced by one refle< tion; the, exterior and fainter, by two: when tl latter is visible, its colours lie in a contrary ordi to the other. Q. What part of the whole spectrum, or boi does each of these colours occupy ? * A. If it be divided into 360 parts, the n will occupy 45; the orange 27; the yellow 41 the green 60; the bliie ^0; the indigo ^0^ ar the violet 80 parts. Q. How is the lunar Rainbow formed? A. The lunar Rainbow is formed in exact! the same. manner as the other ^ by the beams ( the moon falling upon the bosom of a shower. Q. How is that lucid ring, called ihe^Jial which we sometimes see diliised around tl moon, accounted for? A. As -the Aafo always appears in rainy ( frosty weather, we may suppose it occasion! by the refraction of light, in the watery, or fr zen particles of the atmosphere. OF HAIL. Q. What is Hail? A. Hail is an aqueous concretion, general round, but sometimes angular, triangular, &c. f cording to the suddenness of its first formatii and the degrees of cold through which it past y/r its descent 0NOW. t$ Q, How is it produced ? > A. Hail is produced thus: Particles of water being brought together by the agency of the electric fluid, in the upper regions of the air, form dropsy and these, in their descent through a cold atmosphere, are congealed, and form hail" stones of greater or less sisse and density, accord- ing to the intenseness of the cold, the quantum of water firsi; congealed, and the number of 4)ther [^i&rticles which adhere during their descent OP SNOW. Q. How is Snow produced ? A. Snow is, formed in the middle region of the atmosphere, by particles of ^ater there con- gealed, and to Which, similar particles unite and still accumulate as they descend through a cold air, till they fall to the earth in what we term flakes of Snow. Q. Why are those flakes so light? A. The lightness of these flakes of snow, is owing to the extent of the surface, in compari- son with the matter contained under it; as gold itself may be extended in surface till it will float upon the least breath qf air. Q. What is the cause of their whiteness? A. The particles of ice that compose flakefi of Snow, being solid, transparent, and differently arranged, reflect the light from every ^art^ and ' thu5 produce theit whitemss. 94 POLITE LEARNING. • Q. Of what benefit is Snow to the earth? A. Snow furnishes a covering for corn and other vegetables, by which they are guarded from the intense cold of the air; especially^ from piercing winds and hard frosts: It ako prevents the internal heat of the earth from escaping; and, when melting, it moistens and pulverizes the soil, and thereby promotes vegetation. ~ OP RAIN. Q. What is Rain? / A. Rain is a precipitated cloud, descending in the form of drops of water; or, it is snow dissolv- ed in passing through the lower and warmer re- gion of the atn&sphere. Rain, therefore, has its origin in regions below those of snow and hail. Q. How do you account for the various sizes of drops of Rain ? A. The various sizes of raindrops, may be accounted for as follows: On mountains, drops of Rain, as well as flakes of snow and hailstones, are very small ; but the more intense the electri- city is that forms them, the larger they are. Their bulk is also increased from Miie length of their descent through a ^umid atmosphere, in which they attract particles of vapour as they fall: for, it is known, that a vessel placed on the top of a high tower, will not collect so much num as another of the same dimensions^ set on ibe ground. FOG AND DEW. U Q. What are the chief usesof Rain? A. Rain moistens and softens the earth, and thus fits it for affording nourishment to plarits. By falling on mountains, it carries down with it many particles of loose earth, which serve to fertilize the surrounding valleys: it purifies the air from noxious exhalations, which tend, in their return to the earth, to meliorate the soil : it also moderates the heat of the air ; and is one means of supplying fountains and rivers. Q. Was Ihere any Rain before the flood? A. It is supposed there was no Rain before the flood, but that, the earth was moistened by plen- tiful dews or mists: of course, there could have been then no rainbow. This meteor i% recorded in the bible as appearing, for the first time, after that great occurrence. OF FOG AND DEW. Q. What is Fog? A. Fog or mist, is a meteor, consisting of gross vapours, floating near the surface oi the earth. Q. How is it formed ? A. Fo^ is formed by vapours raised from the earth, which nueet, at their first entrance into the atmosphere, with cold sufficient to condense them considerably; and thus arrest their ascent They therefore either remain suspended fet ^ time, (» returiuback in a U^l ^ln^'l^^x^^'«^* 96 POLITE LEABMINa Fogs are only low clouds, or clouds in the lowest region of the air; and clouds are nothing more than Fogs raised on high. Q. How is Dew formed? A. Dew is formed from extremely light and subtile vapours, which, as they ascend from the earth, become condensed by the coldness of the nieht, before they have arisen to any considerable height, and return back in imperceptible drops OF WATERSPOUTS. Q. What is a Waterspout ? A. A Waterspout is a large column of water, rising in a spiral form from the agitated ocean, with a frightful rushing noise, to a vast height in the air. Q. What is the cause of this phenomenon? A. Dr. Franklin ascribes Waterspouts to flicf same cause which produces whirlwinds; namely^ the rarefaction of the air; and this hypothesis i^ strengthened by the fact that Waterspouts seldoiif appear except in warm climates. f Q. Do Waterspouts often occur? '^ A. In th'e vicinity of the equator, Watersporf are very frequent; and would often endanger destroy ships, were not means found to red^f them before their very neai* approach. Q, How may this be done ? , " A. A Waterspout is easily reduced by & charge o/jf^^non. By "this the pxessiai^ ttDfeS. ♦ 8T surrouhdihg air is decreased both through rare- faction and expansion; and the Waterspout re* turns upon the ocean, in the form of a heavy rain, or torrent OF THE TIDES. Q. What is meant by the Tides? A* Tides are two periodical motions of tBe waters of the sea; called the flux and reflux, or \he Jlow and el^b. « Q. Please to explain these motions ? A. The sea is observed to flow from the equa- tor towards^ the north and the south pole, for about six hours; in which motion, or flux, the sea gradually swells; so that, entering the mouths of ^ rivers, it drives back the river waters towards their source. After this flux has continued for sif hours, the sea seems to rest for about twelve . minutes; and in this state it is called high water* When iJiis pause is over, the ebb commences, and the sea retires from the poles towards the'^ equator^ for six hours more; in which time^ the* wisiter sinking, the rivers resume their course towards the sea. After this reflux, the sea again rests another twelve minutes; and in thlU d^t^, kjs calied low water. Q. 'HoW are these phenomena accounted for? A. Tides are occasioned by the attraction of the moon^ which extends to the earth in sopoitt- erful a manner, as to draw w^ >i!tv^ ^j^x^ 5S:v^^ O0tfin in a heap ^ imtnediftt&Yy )b«w^«k^^^ \jNSiw«v^ 38 ^ POLITE LEARNING. At the sanie time, the waters on the opposite side of the eai*th, being feebly attracted, the neighbouring waters, pressing towards that place, swell into a heap, pointing to the opposite part of the heaven, and causing the Tides to rise at the respective antipodes at the same time. Thus, does the moon, in going once round the earth in twenty-four hours and tlflree quarters, produce two tides or swells, and as many ebbs. Q. What are the causes of the Tide rising much higher at one< time than at another ? ^- A. The causes of the Tide's rising higher at one time than at another, are, that about the time of the new and full moon, the action of both the sun and moon are united, and draw in the same straight line, by which means the waters are most elevated at these times, and are called - spring tides; and this elevation is farther in- creased the nearer these two luminaries are to the equator; consequently, the highest spring Tides are in March and September. The lowest Tides are about the first and third quao-ter of the moon, and are called neap tides: for, at these times, the sun and moon act con- trariwise; the sun raising the waters at the point where the moon causes them to be lowest: so that these Tides are occasioned only by the differ^ / ence by which the attraction of the moon, which is nearest to the earth, prevails over that of the, sun. (i. Whence proceed their other irregular mf tions? A. The other irregular motions ot \Xi^ '.\ EARTHQUAKES. 89 are caused principally by a multitude of islands and continents, which interrupt the course of the waters, and produce a variety of appearances in different places. Were it not for these, as the tides are caused principally by the moon, and consequently follow her apparent course from east to west, and her declination from north to south, except the irregularities already mention- ed, all the motions of the waters would be uni- fonn« OF EARTHQUAKES. Q. What is an Earthquake? A. Ah Earthquake iis a tremendous agitation of some considerable part of the earth, attended with a noise like thunder ; and frequently with an eruption of wind or smoke, water or fire. It is, undoubtedly, the greatest and most formida- ble phenomenon of nature. Q. What is the cause of these terrible phe- nomena.^ A. Earthquakes of a superficial kind, may have an electric origin: for, when a part of the earth is in a highly electrified state, the approach of a non-electric cloud, will produce a sudden discharge, and occasion a violent commotion in the earth, many miles in compass. But the prin- cipal agent of those that are interior and more tre- mendous, is subterraneous fire. Q. Please to explain iViosa ol ^\iNi\Kt\^KSN&^^ origin? .40 POLITE LEARNING. A. The earth abounds with subterraneous 4sa verns, canals, and veins; some full of exhalations, others, full of water; and some parts replete with nitre, sulphur, bitumen, &c. which produce fire : hence, it is easy to conceive the terrible ef- fects which may be occasioned from such con- fined air, or water, when acted upon, and greatly rarefied by fire; especially, if it be considered, that the expansive force of steam is twenty- eight times greater than that of gunpowder. - OF VOLCANOES. Q. What are Volcanoes ? A. VQicanoes are burning mountains, which esmit AajnaOf ashes, cinders, s^iones, liquid sulphur, and other substances. Q. Are there many of them ? A. Yes, Volcanoes are found in all quarters of the globe; but the principal of those in Eu- rope, are Etna, or Gibel, in Sicily; Vesuvius, in Naples; and Hecla, in Iceland. It is owine ' to those vents of subterraneous fireSj that the ei- feicts of earthquakes are not more frequent and dreadful. MINERALOGY. Q. Of what does Mineralogy treat? A. Mineralogy treats of all fossil bodies; as, goJci, silver, iron, tin, lead, and co«3l\\«-"».d»^5ofe MINERALCMJT. 41 various Mtids of stone: as, marble, diamonds, the loadstone, &c. . Q. Give a short description of the principal metals. 1. A. Gold IS the purest, most ductile, and the heaviest of all metals, except platina. It is found in mines, in various parts of the world ; hut abounds most in the mines of- Peru and Chili, in South America. 2. Silver is a white metal ; heavy, sonorous, brilliant, and very ductile. It is found in the greatest abundance in South America. 3. Copper is of a red colour; very sonorous and elastic, and the most ductile of all the metals, except gold. It is found in various parts of the world; but particularly in Sweden.* 4. Iron is universally and largely diffused throughout nature; pervading almost every thing. It is the chief cause of colour in earths and stones, and exists in almost all vegetables and animal fluids. . Iron, though the cheapest, is by far the most useful of all the metals. When placed, for some time, in contact with red-hot charcoal, it becomes much harder and more elastic, and is then called steel; and whea suspended perpendicularly for a considerable period, or acted upon by intense friction, it ac^ quires the properties of a magnet 5. Lead is very heavy, oi a livid white * A mixture of copper and tin fqrnxa brcwae : \wo 5^*s^ of copper aad on6 of zinc^ form brout: o^<^t -nrcckWS^^MjBo^ Moakeprmce'^ metal. ' D2 12 PQil^P LEARNING. M)lQ|]^5<«nd the softest of all metals- It is 'OKteo^ lively used in making paints; and produces gr^y^ vhite, red, or brown, according to the quantity )f oxygen with which it is brought in contact. [t is found in the greatest abundance in England. 6. Tin is a white fusible metal, neither so lard as silver, nor so soft as lead. The Tin nines in Cornwall and Devonshire (England) urnish the greatest part of all the tin consuined n Europe. • Six pounds of brass, with fifteen pounds of lead, ind a hundred pounds of iron, make the composition 'jslled pewter. In Mercury or Quicksilver is a fluid matter, esembling melted silver. In the temperature of dur atmosphere, it is ^either ductile nor malleable. It is the heaviest )f all metals, gold and platina excepted; i^ in a ligh degpee volatile, and extremely fluid; easily idheres to gold, less readily to silver, with dif- icully to copper, but to iron not at all. Q. What of the diamond, and other precious dbnes?' Ji A. The diamond^ called by the ancients, add- nant, is the most valuable of all the precious (tones. Its goodness consists in its water oi* colour, lustre and weight. It is found chiefly in :he mines of Golconda, in Hindpostan; is the lardest of all gems, and can be cut only by it- self. ^' Diamond cut Diamond,^^ Therubt/ is next to the diamoixd mN^Iue^a):wi of a crimson colour, iiicVmm%\js>p\xr^^ MINEBALOGY. 48 The garnet is very like the ruby, and perhaps is of the same species. The hyacinth is sometimes of a deep red, and SQ9ietimes of a yellow colour. The en^rald is a grass green. The beryly 2i sea, or bluish green. . The sapphire J a sky blue. The topaz or chrysolite \s of a gold colour. All these are transparent: but the cornelian f which is of a pale red or orange colour; the MyWf of a greyish cast; the turquoise^ between ;a blue and a green; and the lapis lazuli^ which is studded with spots of gold on an azure ground; are opaque, or only half transparent Q. What do you know of the magnet or load- stone? A. The magnet or loadstone is found in iron mine^ in several parts of the world: as, China, Arabia, Bengal, Hungary, Germany, and En- gland; and resembles the ore of iron in appeai^ ance, but is closer and more ponderous. Q. What are its properties ? A- The magnet or loadstone powerfully at- 4ract3 iron, to which it also communicates the 4|ime attriskctive power; and every magnet, how- ever small or divided, has two poles, one of Which points to the north, and the other to the south. The discovery of the virtues of this stone is of the highest importance to navigation and commerce. tM POUTE LEARNING. • ARCHITECTURE. Q. What is Architecture ? A. Architecture is the art of building or erect- ing edifices: it is of three kinds; Civil, Military, and Naval. Its excellence consists in giving to the materials employed, such form and disposi- tion as to produce beauty, strength, and conve- nience. Q. In what does Civil Architecture consist? A. Civil Architecture consists in designing and building edifices for the uses of civil life; as, dwelling houses, churches, and colleges. These are constructed agreeably to one of the five orders of this art. Q What are these five orders of Civil Archi- tecture? A. The five orders of Civil Architecture are the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Com- posite. These have their names from the per- sons or people who invented them; except the last, which was invented by the Romans, and is a compound of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Besides those five orders, the GotkiCj a fanci- iul, yet sublime style of building, is still used in the construction of churches and other public buildings, not only in Europe and Asia, but in America also. Q. What is Military Architecture ? A. Military Architecture is the art of strength- ening and fortifying towns, or other places; so as to shield them from the assaults of enemies, and the violence of arms, by the erection oi ^atv&-k .c^tlesy an4 other fortresses, with nuapartsy bas- tions, &c. This sfft is more usually termed For- tificatiou. Q. What is Naval Architecture ? A. Naval Architecture is the art of oonstruct- ing ships, galleys, and other floating vessels ; whether for the service of war or commerce. The construction of moles, ports, docks^ &e. b^- }ong3 to this art Q. What are the acquirements necessary for a good architect ? A. The acquirements necessary for a good architect, are ap acquaintance with drawing, gOQ- metry, optjics, and history. PAINTING. »Q. What is Painting? A. Painting is the art of representing objects, by lines and degrees of colours, on an even and uniform surface. ,, Q. How is this art divided ? A' Painting is divided inrto^ix parts: the^^tTv- (GOVERNMENT. 53 ment, viz. Monarchial, Aristocratical/ Demo- cratical, or Republican, and Mixed. Q. What is Monarchial Government ? A. Monarchial Government is that in which the supreme authority is in the hands of one per- son; who is styled a sovereign, emperor, monarch, king, prince, &c. Of these, some are absolute or despotic. \n their authority; i. e. they have no rule for their conduct, but their oum willy and are therefore absolute masters of the lives and property of their subjects: others are limited; having their powers strictly defined and restrained by the laws. Q. What is an Aristocratical Government? A. An Aristocratical Governmeiit is that wherein the nobles, or great men of a nation, ex- ercise the supreme authority, without the sufira- ges of the people. If their numbers be small, it is called an oligarchy. Q. What is a Democratical or Republican Grorernment ? A. A Democratical or Republican Govern- ment is that wherein the people have the sove- reign authority in their own hands; whence,, it is delegated, for a given time, to those whom they may choose to appoint as their representatives in congress, parliament, &c. This government, wherein all men, by wisdom and patriotism, may equally aspire to posts of honour and trust among their fellow citizeiis, ^a V5[ie^ xoa:^ ^^ss^sfc to heaven, by the practice of vulue ^.Ti^^W^^\& "^^ onJjr true, free, and Republican GovenoftStA- f4 POLITE LEARNING. Q. What 18 to be understood by a nub^d Croi^ irnment? A. A mixed Government is one wherein any wo,or more, of the preceding forms, are blended; Sf in Great Britain; where the Goyernnient is L compound of monarchy, aristocracy, and de- nocracy. ThiB country under a monarch, emperor, kinj^, pj-ince, iuke, &c. is called an empire, kingdom, principality, Inkedom, &c. btit that under an aristocracy or denoc- acy, particularly the latter, is termed a staUy repub- ic, or commonwealth. "* ' Q. What appears to have been the earliest brm of Government among men ? A. The earliest form of Government among Qen, seems to have been Patriarchal; or one in ^hich the chief magistrate or ruler sustained the haracter of father of his people. Q. Into how many branches or d^artments 8 Government divided ? - A. Government is divided into three branches, iz: the Legislative^ whose business it is to makie he l^ws— The Executive; by whom the laws re carried into effect, obedience enforced, or ransgression punished — and the Judiciary; ^hose right it is to explain the laws, deteimine ontpoversies between man and man, and pro- Lounce sentence of penalty or punishment The fundamental laws of a country or state, ^rhich secure the rights of the people, and regu- ate the conduct oi their rulers, are termed its POUTIC&-<;OMMBBO£. 55 OF POLITICS. Q. What are Politics ? A. Politics are the science of government Q. What is necessary to the fonning of an able politician ? A- An able politician must ])os6es8 an accu- rate knowledge of the whole condition of bis own, and of every other country; with regard to geographical situation, and government; his- tory, laws, population, productions, commerce^ &c OF COMMERCE. Q. What is Commerce ? A. Commerce is the exchanging of one com- modity for anothel*; or it is the buying and sell- ing of merchandise, with a view of acquiring profit It appears to be nearly as ancient as the . world: and at first consisted simply in eiccbang- ing things necessary for life. This is, even now, the state of commerce amongst the pet^le on the coast of Siberia; in Russian and Norwegian Lapland; and with many of the Asiatic and African tribes, as well as of those of America. Money was not, at a very early period, known; nor is it now in use, as a medium of tnide, amongst Hie people here men- tioned. Q. What nations have made tYieni^^^^^iSiS)!^ jGuoqus ia commerce} S6 POLITE LEARNING. A. The people most famous in commerce, were the Phenicians, Egyptians, Carthaginians, and Rhodians; and, in modern times, the Flem- ings, Venetians, Genoese, Portuguese, and Dutch: but especially the British, and Americans. Tb* famauB society of the Hanseatic Towns, joined n a league, offensive and defensive, is commonly be- lieved to have been instituted at Bremen. It was not, in the begiuninE, composed of more than the towns situated on the Baltic sea, or of those that were only a little distant; but, its reputation increasing, thbre were few of the commercial towns in Europe, that did not become of the number. Immediately before the great French revolution, this society comprised I^ubeck, Hamburgh, Bremen, Rostock, wunswick, and some others; but it cow, a< well as many other ancient associations, is totally dia solved. LOGIC. Q. What is Logic ? A. Logic is the science of correct thinking; or, it is the art of using reason well in our in- quiries after truth, and in the communication of it to others. Q. What are the principal operaUons of the mind? A. The principal operations of the mind, ore perception, judgment, reasoning, and disposi tion. LOGIC. B^ seeing, or conceiving in the mind, the existence, nature, or properties of what we contemplate. Q. What is the result of percqf}tion? A. The result of perception is an ideuy or mental imager or it is the view which the mind takes of objects now no longer present; as, The steeple which we saw, and the orator whom we heard, though far away, are still be- fore the eye of the mind. Q. Whdi is judgment? A. Judgment is that operation of the mind by which we compare two or more ideas • to- gether, with a view of determining whether they agree or disagree. Q. What is a judgment expressed in words, called? A. K judgment expressed in words, is called 2l proposition; of which there are several kinds; viz. — 1. ^Affirmative; as, Man is an intelligent being; — 2. Negative; as. Birds and beasts do not reason; — 3. Conditional; as. If we rise early, we shall save time. Q. What is reasoning? A. Reasonings or argumentation, is that oper* ation of the mind by which we draw our conclu- sions on any subject that is not, in itself clear, by comparing it with other similar subjects, that are clear, known, and evident. Q. What are these conc/i/^fon*,- or acts of reasoning, called? A. These conclusionSy or acts of reasoning, when just, are called ^Hogtsms ; 'wY^xi Ss^Ssfcy SQpAisfns. 58 POLITE LEARNING. EXAMPLES. No virtuous man is a slanderer: But Sileno and Garrulous are both slanderers; Therefore, neither of them is a virtuous man. A Syllogism. A church is a building of stone: A religious assembly is a church; Therefore, a religious assembly is a building of stone. Ji Sophism, If the sun be. risen, the night is past: But the night is not past; Therefore, the sun is not risen. A Syllogism, A goose goes upon two feet: Stultus goes upon two feet; Therefore, Stultus is a goose. •/? Sophism,. Q. What is disposition? A. jDispositiony or arrangement, is the order in which we place our perceptions and reasonings 09 any subject, with a view of getting the clear- est knowledge of it ourselves, retaining it best in our memory, and communicating it most ef- fectually to others. Our perceptions should be clear and distinct^ full and comprehensive; and orderly in their ar- rangement ' Q. To whom is the art of Logic most useful ? A. Logic is useful to all men; but especially to preachers, lawyers, legislators, and those who are called to reason with, and instruct others. All who think and judge for themselves, ^Jjougb they may be unconscloua ot \\^ ^^ qaw- i RHETORIC AND OUA'TORT. 59 stantly using logic; though it may not be meth- odized by art. RHETORIC AND ORATORY. Q. WhRiis JRhetoricf A. Rhetoric or Oratory j Is the art of speak- ing justly, methodically, and elegantly upon any subject, so as to please^ persuade, and instruct A speech made or delivered according to the rules of this art, is called an oration^ and the speaker, an orator, Q. What are the qualifications of a good ora- tor? A. A good orator should possess the five fol- lowing requisites: 1. MetQiOryj to enable him to retain what he has to advance till the proper time and place for introducing it S. LogiCi or a logical mind, to direct to the right use* of his reasoning powers. 3. Invention^ to enable him to find out and frame such arguments as are best adapted to convince, persuade, instruct, conciliate, and gain belief. 4. Dispositioriy whereby he may ao^range his arguments in the most advantageous mannen 5. ElocutioTiy which implies a clear and dis- tinct enunciation, just time and action, proper tones and emphasis, with approTpTV^V^^^KWXsvw^'- ^9 language^ loud jeoou^ to be well heard and understood.* Q. How many parts has an Oration? A. An Oration has five parts^ viz: — ^the Exordium^ Narration, Confirmation, Refutation^ and Peroration, Q. What Is the Exordium? A. The Exordium^ or Preamble, is the begin^ ning of the Oration^ designed to secure the atten- tion of the hearers, gain their good opinion, and give theni a general idea of the subject. It should be brief, modest, and perspicuous. « The Narration is a recital of facts as they oc- curred, or are supposed to have occurred. It ^hoidd be made as probable, perspicuous, inter esting, and concise as possible. ^ The Confimhation is the establishing of the truth, or proposition, as advanced in the Narra* tibn. - The Refutation — which should ever be lively and pungent — -is the refelling of the arguments ©f . the op|>osing party, by adicwing them to be false, unsound, or inconclusive. The Peroration^ or conclusion, .recapitulates the principal arguments, in a concise, forcible, * Elocution comprises, Ist. Composition or the grammatical arraDgement, plain* ness, and propriety of languag^e. 2d. Elegance J which consists in the purity, perspicuity, and politeness of lan^uag^, and is g;aiciea chiefly by studying the most correct writers, conversing with polite, well in- ibrmed people, and making frequent and careful essaysln icsompo8i,tion. Sd, jCngnity; which adorns laiig\ia:ge >i or hatred. Rhetoricians advise, to place some of the most pow- erful arguments first, and the feehler next, reserving some of the best for the last. TROPES OR FIGURES. •N Q. What do Tropes or Figures of Speech denote ? A. Tropes or Figures of Speech ^Xw^cys de* note some departure from simplicity of expres- sion. They exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive than could easily be done by plain language. Example. A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of ad- versity. This is simple language; but when I say — ^^*To the upright, there ariseth light in dark* ness,^' I use figurative language, and express the same sentimeiit in a more elegant and impress- ive manner. Q. What effects have Tropes or Figures upon language? A. Tropes or Figures greatly enliven, beau* 'tify, and enrich language, by furnishing a multi- tude of words and phrases, suited to express our ideas in all their varieties of shade and difference, and which it. would be almost impossible to do, without such figures. Q. Can you enumerate theae fv^x^s*^. A. Fe5-— the principal Tropes OYl?\^T^»tct^— $» POLITE LBABNlNC. Personijication, •Spostrcphe, Simile, Metc^ phor, JlUtgory, Irony, Hyperboh, Climax, •Antithesis, Metonomy, and Synecdoche, Please to explain each of these Figures. Personification is the bestowing of sensation, life, or action, upon things inanimate. EXAMPLES. The earth thirsts for rain. Cbeer'd with the grateful smell, old ocean smiles. Behold, the mom, in russet mantle clad, Walks o*er the dew of yxm high eastern hill. At his command, the uprooted hills retired. Each to his place: they heard his voice, and went Obsequious. Hill and valley smiPd. ^ Ye woods and wilds, whose melancholy gloom . Accords with my soul's sadness, and draws forth The voice of sorrow frojn my bursting heart, Farewell awhile: I will not leave you long. The •Apostrophe bestows an ideal presence upon real persons who are either dead or absent It addresses them as if actually present EXAMPLES. Retire, for it is night, my love, and the dark winds sigh in thy hair. Retire to the hall of my feasts, and think of the times that are past; for I will not return until the storm of war is gone. — Ossian. Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, maid of Inistore: bend thy fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when it moves in a sunbeam at«oon, o'er \h^ ^Akw^'^ ^l TROPES 4}R FI6UBES. &3 Morven. He is fallen! Thy youth is low,*-* pale beneath the sword of Cuchullin.— Oman. A Simile is a comparison by which any thing is illustrated. This figure, equally familiar and beautiful, discovers resemblances, real or imaginary, between objects or actions, which in their general nature, are dissimilar. EXAMPLES. 7%« music of Caryty was, like the memory of joys that are past f pleasant and mournful to ^e soul. Often, like the ^evening sun, comes the memr cry of former times upon my soul. She never told her love; — But let concealment, like a worm t' the budj Feed on her damask cheek: S?ie pin'd in thought; And, like patience on a monument, sat smiling at grief. A Metaphor is the putting of a word to a use which, in its original import, it does not admit A Metaphor in borrowM words compares, As, for excess, we say— a Jlood of tears. EXAMPLES. Spring awakes the flowers; Autumn gath- ers the fruit Wallace was a thunderbolt of war; Fingaly the gale of spring. A Metaphor expresses a comparison without using the signs of comparison ; and in this ^lovi^ Vl ^\^<^^r^ from a Simile, Comparison is the iQ\iTid'^\.\c>Tv.Qi\^^'^< Our Washington was thepi^kir of Cc^\Mn^W^'\xQ'^^ — ' «4 POLITE LEAIINING. Tfait ii a i^etapkor. — Washrngton, like a mighiy piUat upheld the atate^-^Thk u a SimUe, Charles the twelfth was the lion of the north. ^ Metaphor. Charles the twelfth was like a ^n, prowling for his prey. SimUe, An Allegory is a continued metaphor; or it is a figurative representation in which something is intended, different from what is expressed by the words literally taken. EXAMPLES. . Venus (love) grows cold wi^out C^re^ (bread) and BachuSy (wine.) An Allegory is a chain of Tropes*— IVe passM the skoals; (bit gales now swell my hopes. The following is a correct and most beautifiil Alle- gory, representmg the people of Israel under the image of a vine. *' Thou hafit brought a tine out of Egypt; thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it: thou preparedst room before it^ and didst cause it to take deep root^ and it filled the land. "The hills were covered with the shadow of If, and the boughs thereof w&re like the goodly cedars. y She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river. " Return, we beseech thee, and behold and visit this vine. "--SOth Psahn. Irony, dissembling with an air. Means otherwise than words declare. Cry aloud; for he is a god: eilVvex \\^ \^ Vi^- TROPES OR* FIOUB£S. 65 ing, or he-is pursuing, or he is on a journey; or, peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked. 1 Kings, xviii. 27. Hyperbole soars high, or creeps too low; Exceeds the truth, things wonderful to show. EXAMPLES. Achilles was fleeter than the stag — swift as the wind. A Climax^ or gradation, is^a figure in Rheto- ricy which gradualljr increases the representation till it reaches its highest point of interest or im- portance. EXAMPLES. A Climax, by gradation, a- or ^fe-scends. They were my countrymen, my neighbours, my friends! She was young^ beautiful, amiable, accom-' plished, And pious. An Antithesis is a figure which strengthens language, argument, or I'epresentation, by oppo- sition or apposition. EXAMPLES. If you wish to be rich, study not to increase your stores, — but to diminish your desires. Tho' deep, yet clear; tho' gentle, yet not dull; Strong, without rage; without overflowing, full. Metonomy is the putting of the cause for the effect, or the effect for the cause; the container^ for the contained; or the sign iox \!cv^'tfec«vN^»t^- ni/ied. Fa -W POLITE LEABNINO. EXAMPLSS. * We arc reading Virgil — i. e. VirgiPs works. Oray hairs [old age\ should be honoured. The kettle [the water in the kettle] boils. He addressed the chair. * The fair [the ladies] are fickle. A Synecdoche puts a part for the whoh^ the whole for a part, ' EXAMPLES. Thirty head Icattle'] perished in the waveSy [the «6a»] ?' While o'er the roof [house] lotid thunders break. GRAMMAR. Q. What is Grammar ? A. Grammar is the art of rightly expressing our thoughts, either in oral or written language. Q. Whence is the word Grammar derived ? A. The term Grammar is taken from the Greek word [gramma^ which signifies a letter. Q. How is Grammar divided ? A. Grammar is divided into four parts : ety* mology, orthography, syntax, and prosody. • Etymology deduces and explains the origin, reason, and derivation of words; in order to aiTive at their first and primary signification. Orthography, or spelling, teaches to write words y^uh all the proper and necessary letters. Syntax is the constructinit or xiidiV. OT^fttwL UkNGUAOfi. e7 of words iiv& phrase or sentence; so as to maike the meaning clear and distinct Prosody treats of the ti»ue pronunciation of syllables, in respect to quantity and accent. Q. What are ipeant by quantity and accent ? A. Quantity is the length of time taken up in pronouncing a syllable; and accent, the pro* nouncing of it with a stronger or a weaker tone of voice. Q. How many kinds of words ai'e there ? A. Ten; commonly called parts of speech. Q. What are their names ? A. The article, noun, pronoun, adiective, verb, participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and inteijection. Q. Is it necessary to study the Grammar of Qur own language? A. Yes: Without a competent grammatical knowledge of our own language, we should be ignorant of its beauties, and unable to express ourselves correctly, or politely, even on th^ most trifling occasions. LANGUAGE. Q^ What is Language ? A. Language is a set of words, or an assem- blage of expressions, which chance or capriee has established among a people, in order to com* municate their thoughts one to another. Q. Whence the origin of lau^^^^ A. Language is supposed to ^^ ol dLvrs^^i^ tt POLITE LEARNING. gin, and supematurally communicated to the first man. Q. Whence comes the diversity of Lan- guages? A. The diversity of Languages, is generally allowed to have taken its rise from the confusion of tongues, at the building of the tower of Babel. Q. Where may an account of this event be seen; and by whom is it given? A. We have a particular account of the con- fusion of tongues given in the eleventh chapter of Genesis, written by Moses. What is the most ancient langoage, is a point that has been much controverted. The majority seem ior clined to the Hebrew; deeming it the primitive lan- guage, and the source of all the rest: the Syriac^ias the next greatest number of advocates; but many sup- port, the Greek; others maintain the Teutonic, and some, the Chinese. Q. What are the principal languages now used in Europe and America/ A. The English, French, German, Spanish, and Italian, are almost the only languages now used in Europe or America? The English language, whose root is chiefly Saxon, enriched by derivations from the Latin, and by familiar phrases from the French, with occasional formations nrom the Greek language, is not excelled by any other, for copiousness and strength. The French tongue is extremely brisk and lively; composed of ancient Gallic words, and, like the IBn- glish, largely indebted to the Latin. The German has a variety of dialects*, principally «/* OtltJe origin. POETRY. • 69 The Italiaki- is alxnoit wholly an alteratiob of the .Latin ; and the Spanish language also plainly d^scoyen itself to be of the same family. Q. Who was the inventor of letters ? A. There being no authentic relation of any alphabetical character before the flood, the greater namber of writers -have contented themselves with tracing the origin of letters to Moses; who is supposed to be the same with the Egyptian ThotJi or Hermes. That orderly arrangement of the letters, called the alphabet, is generally ascribed to Cadmus, king of Thebes: he nrst brought letters from Phenicia into Greece, about 1045 years before Christ; whence, in Ule following ages, they spread over the rest of Europe. POETRY. Q; What is Poetry? A« Poetry is a species of composition, made according to certain harmonious measures^ or proportions of time and sound. Q. What is a Poem ? A. A Poem is a complete or finished piece of Poetry; as Homer's Iliad. Q. What is Rhyme? A. Rhyme is that kind of Poetry in which the terminating sound of one line agrees ^ith that of another; as, Soon as we draw our iutaxi\.\iT^^^, The seeds of sin grovf up lox ^eaJiJa.* 70 POLITE LEARNING. Q. What b Blank Verse ? A. Blank Verse, like other Poetry, is met* sured, but does not rhyme; as, Night, sable goddess ! from her ebon throne, la rayless majesty, now stretches forth Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world. Silence, how dead! and darkness, how profound! Nor eye, nor list'ning ear, an object finds: Creation sleeps. touko. Q. What is meant by meo^t/re, in Poetry ? A. The term measure, in poetry, means the number of syllables, or of. feet, contained in a line. Q. What measures are most in use? A. The measures most in use are those of ten, eight, and seven syllables. Q. Give an example of each. 0/ ten. m The bending Hermit here a pray'r begun — << Lord, asi in heav'n, on earth thy will be done." Then, gladly turning, sought his ancient place; And passed a life of piety and peace. PARNEXpL. 0/ eight. The woodbine wafts, in odours meek^ To kiss the rose's glowing cheek; Pale twilight sheds her vagrant show'rsy • T' awake Aurora's infant flow'rs: May smiles on ev'ry face I see, 3iii, ah ! she smiles no more oti met POETRY. tl Of seven. Oh then, e'er the turf or tomb Cover us from ev'ry eye; Spirit of instruction, come, Make us learn that we must die! COWPBR. There are several other shorter measures in use, but they are not so common* Q. What is Pastoral Poetry? A. Pastoral Poetry is that which describes a shepherd's life, or the life of rural nymphs and swains. Q. What is an Elegy ? A. An Elegy is a mournful poem, or funeral song. Q. What is Lyric Poetry ? A. Lyric Poetry is that which is generally used in the composition of odes and songs, de- signed to be sung to the lyre or harp* Q. What is Pindaric ode ? A. Pindaric ode, so called from its inventor,* Pinctar, is a sort of Poetry, which consists of loose and free numbers, of unequal measures. Q. What is Satire? A. Satire is a free, witty, sharp, and jocose, poem; severely reproving the vices and follies of those in whom they are found. Q. What is Comedy? , ^ A. Comedy is an agreeable, humorous Repre- sentation of the customs of commotv l\fe. Q. WAaeis Tragedy ? .^ A. Tragedy exhibits the acWotv^ ol v\xNxys^ 1 7f ' POLITE LEAKNINO. and illustrious persons; so as to excite sympathy, or promote the patriotic^ heroic^ and social vir- tues. Tragedy and Comedy are called dramatic Poetry. Q. What is an Epic or Heroic poem? A. An Epic or Heroic Poem, is a poetical narration or rehearsal of the illustrious and im- portant actions of the person celebrated in the poem; as, the exploits of Achilles, in the Iliad of Homer. Q. An Epigram — what is that ? A. An Epigram is an inferior kind of poem, whose peculiar character is brevity, beauty, and a sharp turn of wit at the close. Q. What is an acrostic— a rondeau — a cha- rade—echo — rebus, &c.? A. They are a trifling kind of productions, not here worth a description. Q. What is a poetical foot — and why so called ? A. A certain number of syllables connected, form what is called a poetical foot. They are termed feet, because it is by their aid, that the voice, as it were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace: and it is necessary that the syllables which mark this regular movement of the voice, should, in some way, be distinguished from the others. Q. How many kinds of these feet are there? A. All the poetic feet are reducible to eight ^ittds; four of two syllables, and four of three; ^' POETRY. U A Trochee - o A Dactyl - o o An Iambus v -^ An Amphibrach o * «» A Spondee - - An Anapaest o c - A Pyrrhic c) » A Tribrach o o o Q. How are these aeveral kinds of feet dis* tin^ished ? A. A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented; as, hatefal, pettish* An Iambus has tlie first syllable unaccepted^ and the last accented; as^ betray, consist A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented; as, the pale moon. A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccentlfd; as. On the tall tree. A Daciyt has the first syllable accented, and the last two unaccented ; as^ labourer, pc^ssible* An •Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented, a^d the middle one accented; as^ dellghtfal, domestic An ^napsBst has the first two syllables unac- cented, and the last one accented ; as, cOotrftv^e, acquiesce. > A Tri^Hich bias all its syllables unaccented ; as, numftraibte, c6nquerable.* **8oiiiens, with absolute swSy, And grow wiser and better, as life wears away. Q. How many kinds of poetical pauses are there? A. There are two kinds of poetical pauses--* one for the sense, and another for the melody; perfectly distinct from each other. The former is called the sentential pause; and the latter, the harmonic pause. The sentential pauses are those which are known to us by the name of stops; as, the com* ma, semicolon, colon, &c. Q. What have yoii to remark respecting the harmonic pause? A. The harmonic pauses may be subdivided into the fnal pause, and the csesural pause. These sometimes coincide with the sentential pauses, and son^etimes have an independent state; that is, exist where there vst\o ^\a\k vct*^^ $ense, . n POLITE LCARNINO. Q, Where, in reading Poetry, is the ^na/, and where, the csssural pause, to be made ? A. The final pause takes place at the end of the line, closes the verse, and marks the mea- sure: the caesural pause divides the line into equal, or unequal parts, falling generally on the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable, in heroic verse. The final pause preserves the melody, without interfering with the sense; for, as it has no pe- culiar note of its own, but always takes that which belongs to the preceding word, it changes with the matter, and varies with the sense; and thus, prevents monotony. Exemplification of the caesural pauses: ["] TRe silver eeV\ in shining volumes ralPdj The yellow carp'\ in scales bedropp^d with gold. Round broken columns** y clasping ivy iwin'dy O^er heaps qf ruin'*y stalked the stately hind. Ohy say, what stranger cause", yet unexplored, Could make a gentle belle*', ryect a lord. The line is sometimes. divided into four parts, by the introduction of what is called a demi-cse- sura; thus, Warms* in the sun**, refreshes* in the breeze, Glows* in the stars'*, and blossoms* in the trees; Lives* through all life**, extends* throtsgh att extent, Jjipreads* undivided** ^ oper atea\ unspeat. MUSIC. • 77 MUSIC. Q. In what does Music consist ? A. Music consists in a succession of pleasing sounds, with reference to a particular, internfi sense, implanted in us, by the Great Author of Nature. Q, What does Music teach, considered as a science ? A. Music, considered as a sciencCy teaches us the just disposition and true relation of sounds^ so that they may affect us in the most agreeable manner: as anar/, it enables us to exjH'ess these sounds with facility and correctness. Q. What is to be understood by the composi- tion of Music ? A. The composition of Music is the art of framing pieces of music, and writing them in notes, upon paper; according to the rules of the science. Q. How many sounds may be expressed by the human voice. A. The human voice is ordinarily capable of expressing twenty-two sounds. Q. What is Melody ? A. Melody is the agreeable effect which uisas j[rom the succession of single sounds. Q. What is Harmony ? * A. Harmony is the pleasing union of several sounds. Q. What are the principal qualities of ma* sical sounds? A, The. primary and esse^t\a\ i)cw^ x^^osiv fence conveyed, by the OTpit\^ Ti«r?«> V» "^^ 00 POLITE LEARNING. oommoa seiisoHum in the brain, catise^he Itimin^ ous object to be p^ceivied, by the mind. Q. What are the other benefits of this science ? A. Besides explaining the manner in which vision is performed in the eye, it treats of sight, in genera]; explains the several modifications which the rays of light undergo in the eye, and why some can only see a short, and others a greater, distance; 8ht)ws why objects appear sometimes greater, and sometimes smaller; sometimes distinct, and sometimes confused; sometimes near, and sometimes remote: and ac- counts for the production of light, colours, &c. All the rules of perspective have their founda- tbn in Optics. MATHEMATICS. Q. What are Mathematics ? A. Mathematics is a science that contemplates whatever is capable of being numbered or mea- sured. Q. What is the etymology of the word ? A. The word Mathematics is derived from the Greek ; and the original word signifies flfiss cipline or science; for, this is the oldest science, and the rest took their common name from it Q. How are Mathematics divided ? A. Mathematics are divided into pure and mixed: ihepure considers quantity, abstractedly, and without any relation to matter or bodies; the mixed are interwoven with physical contsidera- tions. ikBITHMETIC* n Q^ Of what use is this science ? A. The science of Mathematics, opens and extends our ideas, strengthens and improves our understanding, fixes our attention, and, by giving a habit of just reasoning, prepares us for all other kinds of study, and every important employment of life. Q. What are its principal bnmches ? A. The principsd branches of Mathematics are, Arithmetic, Greometry, Mechanics^ Optics, Astronomy, Geography^ Chronology, and Archi- tecture. ARITHMETIC. Q. What is Arithmetic ? A. Arithmetic is the science or knowledge of numbers, and has five principal rules for its ope- rations; namely; Numeration, Addition, Sub- traction, Multiplication, and Division. Numeration teaches to read or exiH'ess the true value of any number of figures, written down, or named. Addition, to collect several numbers or quan^ tities into one sum ; as, 7 and 5 are 12, and 8 are 20. Subtraction takes a less number from a greater, and shows the remainder or difierence. Multiplication enables us to find the amount of any number taken any proposed number of times; so that it is a compendious kind of addi* tion. Division is the reverse ot M\A\i^v^\««v> «b^ M POLm: LEARNING. shows how oflten one numl^er is contained in an- other. Reduction^ the Rule of Three, Practice, In- terest, Fellowship, the Extraction of Roots, &c. are no more than so many combinations of Uiose five elementary rules. Q. To whom is Arithmetic necessary ? A. A knowledge of Arithmetic is necessary to every one. It is the soul of commerce, and. essentiially necessary in every department of life. GEOMETRY. Q. What is Geometry ? A* Geometry is a science teaching the men- suration of quantity, extension, and magnitude; that is, of lines, suHaces, and solids. The word is from the Greek, and signifies to measure the earth* It had its rise among the Egyptians; who were, in a manner, compelled to invent it, to remedy the disorders occasioned by the annual inundations of the river Nile, which bore away the bounds and landmarks of their estates. Q. What is a Line ? A. A Line is length only, having neither breadth nor thickness. It is supposed to be formed by the motion of a point; and is to be conceived as the limit of a surface, and not as a part of that surface, however small. Q. What is a Surface ? A» A Surface or SuperficieB, \« ^ m«.^^^Xxy^^^ 6E0Mi:tRt. ^ «S ei^tending in length* and breadth, but without thickness or depth. It is produced by the mo- tion of a line ; and is chiefly considered as the external part of a solid. Q. What is a Solid ? A. A Solid is magnitude, endued with three dimensions, or extended in length, breadth, and depth. It is terminated, or contained, under one or more planes or surfaces, as a surface is under one or more lines. Q. How is Geometry divided ?' A. Geometry is divided into four principal branches; Altimetry, Longimetry, Planimetry, and Stereometry. Q. Explain the purport of each ? A. ^ItiTneirt/ includes the measuring of lines, either in respect to height or depth ; whether ac- cessible or inaccessible. Longimetry is the art of measuring leiigths and distances; both, accessible; as roads, &c. and inaccessible ; as, arms of the sea, &c; Planimetry teaches the mensuration of planes, or surfaces; which is performed by square mea- sures; as, square inches, square feet, &c; It in- cludes surveying y or the art of measuring land; by taking the dimensions, laying down the same in a map or draught, and finding its contents or area. Stereometry is the mensuration of all kinds of solid bodies, by cubic measures; as, cubic inches, cubic feet, &c. This includes gauging^ or the art of finding the contjeuts li^ ^xv^ N^'sa^ pr the quantity of liquid cotitam^di V5ftKWS«w* M POLITE UBABNING. METAPHYSICS, Q. What are Metaphysics? A. Metaphysics may be considered as the science qf mind. It contemplates the nature and properties of abstract qualities, and of im- material or spiritual beings; as, Deity ^ the soul^ angeby intellect, &c Physics treats of material or natural things; and judces of them from experience. Metaphysics is applied to the contemplation of im- material or spiritual things : and judges of them only by abstraction, independent of material things. ASTRONOMY. Q. What is Astronomy ? A. Astronomy is a mixed, mathematical sci* ence; teaching the knowledge of the celestial bodies^ their magnitudes^ motions^ distances^ pe- riods, eclipses, and order. Q. What is the use of this science? A. By knowledge derived from Astronomy^ the size of the earth is discovered, the situation of countries ascertained, trade and commerce .carried on to the remotest parts of the world, and its various products distributed for the health and comfort of the human family. I By the study and grandeur of this sublime sci- encoj our faculties are enlarged and ennobled, and we soar above the comparatively little things Gf ibis nether worldi while, sat Ah^ «»«»& time^ our t SOLAR SFSCTBC' 88 tmderstandmgs are conyinced of liie exkteno^ power, and goodness, of the Supreme Beings who carries on the wonderful harmony and con* aexion observable throughout the solar system. OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. Q. Of \vhat does the Solar System consist? A. The Solar System consists of the sun, with eleven primary, and eighteen secondary planets, or moons, and a number of comets. Q. Give some particulars of the Sim. A. The Sun, an immense globe of fire, is fixed in the centre of the system, having a central mo* tion about his own axis, in 25 days 6 hours; as is evident by observing the black spots seen on his disk or surface. He is 763,000 miles in dia- meter; about one million of times larger than the earth; and dispenses light and heat to all the planets and comets revolving round him. Q. What are the Planets ? A. The Planets are opaque, spherical bodies; having no light of their own, but shining by the reflected light which they receive from me Sun. That side of them, only, is illuminated, which is turned towards him. Q." Can you name these Planets ? A. The names of the Planets are. Mercury, Venus, the JEarth, Mars, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel. Of these^ the Earth has one moow, 'i\x:g>^Kt'> four; Saturn, seven; and Hersc\ie\, «v%- 'Y)^^ H M POLITE LEABNING. i»ther seven primaries, appear to have no moons JOT secondaries. Q. What motions have these Planets? A* They have each a two-fold motioii-^-one in their orbit, called their annual or yearly motion, and another around their own axis, termed their diurnsi or daily motion. Q. In what direction do these planets move ? A. All the primaries move round the sun, from west to east, and the secondaries round their primaries, in the same direction, except those of Herschel, which move from east to west Q. What particulars have you to mention con- cerning each of the Planets ? A. mtrcury is the nearest Planet to the Sun, and goes round him in 87 days 23 hours of our time, nearly ; which is the length of his year; but being seldom seen, on account of his prox- imity to the Sun, and no spots appearing on his surface, the time of his rotation on his axis, or the length of his day, is unknown. His dis- tance from the Sun, is computed to be thirty- seven millions of miles ; his diameter, 3200; and, in his course round the Sun, he moves at the rate of 105,000 miles every hour. Venus^ the second Planet in order from the Sun, is computed to be 68 million of miles from the Sun. By moving at the rate of 76,000 miles every hour in her orbit, she completes her annual revolution in 224 days 17 hours. Her diameter is 7700 miles, and her diurnal roUtwD is performed in 24 of our, days, nearly. When she appears to the vjest ol \5^^'S»a.Tv, ^Vs^ SOLAR SYSTEM; 87 rises before him, and is called the Moming-stai^; and when to the east of the Sun, she shines after he is set, and is then called the Evening-star. Q. Why are Mercury and Venus called in- ferior Planets ? A. Because their orbits are included within the earth's orbit, as appears from their exhibit- ing all the varieties of shape and aspect which the moon does, during their revolutions round the Sun. The Earth is the third Planet in order from the Sun; and at the distance of more than 95 million of miles from him. She completes her annual circuit in 365 days 5 hours 49 min- utes^ moving at the rate of 58,000 miles every hour : which motion, though 120 times swifter than that of a cannon-ball, is little more than half the velocity of Mercury in his orbit. The Earth^s diameter is 7970 miles. By turn- ing round her axis, every 24 hours, from west to east, she causes an apparent diurnal motion of all the heavenly bodies, from east to west This Planet is attended by a satellite, or secondary Planet, called the Moon; which respects the Earth as the centre of its motion; going round the Earth, from change to change, in 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes; and accompanying her around the Sun every year. The Moon^s diameter is 2180 miles, ^nd her distance from the Earth 240,000 miles: she com- pletes her orbit in 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 min- utes; moving about 2290 miles ev^ty \\o\«\ ^xA^ tfjrns round on her axis, in exactly VX\fe ^^trrNotw^ 88 POLITE LEARNING. that she goes round the earth; which is tke rea- son of her always presenting to our yiew^ the same face. Mars is flie next in order, or fourth from the Sun; being the first beyond the orbit of the Earth; and at the distance of 144 millions of miles /rom the Sud. He moves in his orbit at the rate of 55,000 miles every hour, and completes his revolution in 1 year, 321 days, 17 hours, and 21 minutes; which is the length of his year. The diameter of Mars is 4200 miles; and his diurnal rotation is performed in 24 hours 39 min- utes. He sometimes appears gibbous, but never horned like the Moon; which shows that his orbit circumscribes that of the earth: and hence, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel, are called superior Planets. Jupiter J the largest of all the Planets, is fifth in the system; and at the distance of 490 millions of miles from the Sun. By moving in his orbit at the rate of 29,000 miles every hour, he fin- ishes his annual revolution in 11 years, 314 days, 12 hours. His diameter is computed to be 89,000 miles: and by a prodigiously rapid motion on his axis, he performs his diurnal rotation in 9 hours 56 minutes. The body of Jupiter is surrounded by sev era] parallel faint substances, called belts; and he is Intended by four satellites, which revolve it>und him and enlighten him by night, as our Moon does the Earth. Saturn is the sixth in the system; and about ^ milliona of miles from the Sun, ^tw^^\»% SOLAR SYSTEM. M act the rate af 02,000 miles every, hodry.hetptr^ forms his annual circuit in 29 years, 167day% 4 houxs. His diameter is computed jto be 79^ok)0 miles; and his motion on his axis, is so rapid, that his diurnal rotation is performed in 10 hours 16 minutes. Saturn has belts, similar to those of Jupit^ and is surrounded also by a thin broad rin^^ as an artificial globe is by a horizon: its diatne- ter is about 21,000 miles; which is equal to ks distance from the body of the planet on all sides. Saturn has also seven satellites; which go round him on the outside of his ring, and neariy in the same plane with it Herschel is the most remote of all the Planets, from the Sun, and was discovered to belong to this system, in 1782, by Dr. Herschel, of Bath. Its distance from the Sun is about 1800 million of miles; its magnitude is about 90 times greater than that of the Earth ; and its revolution round the Sun is performed in about 83 years. Six satellites, as attendant upon Herschel, have been discovered. Q. Can you form any measure to show the proportionate bulks of these planets ? A. SuppK)sing a globe of 24 inches diameter, to be the size of the Sun, the proportionate diame*- ter of Mercury would be about one-«ighth of an inch; of Venus, one-fifth; of the Earth, one- fourth; of Mars, one-sixth ; of Jupiter, two and a half inches; of Saturn, one inch nine-tenths; and of Herschel, one inch one-tfcti\bL. ^ Q. What might be tked\BtMvt^olV5ftfc'e^afi^^^ H2 .90 POLITE LEARNING. fnm 4fae San, according to these proportions of their bulk ? A. Mercury would be about 32 yards from the centre of the Sun ; Venus, 60 yards ; the Eiarth, 82; Mars, 126; Jupiter, 430; Saturn, 788; and Herschel, 1570 yards. In this pro- portion, the Moon^s distance from the centre of the Earth would be only seven inches and a half. Q. Can you assist the imagination in forming an idea of the jactual distance of the Planets from the Sun ? A. Suppose, that a body projected from the fiun, should continue to fly with the swiftness of a cannon ball, which is at the rate of 480 'miles in an hour; this body would reach the orbit of Mercury, in 8 years 290 days; of Venus, in 16 years 5d day^; of the Earth, in 22 years 211 days; of Mars, in 34 years 82 days; of Jupiter, 116 years 166 days; of Saturn, 213 years 329 days; and of Herschel, in 427 years 290 days. Q. What are the Comets belonging to this aystem? A. Comets are opaque, globular bodies, with tranqMirent trains or tails; moving in very ellip- tical orbits, and in every direction, around the Sun. They become visible to us through only a small part of their course, as they approach the Sun; and remain lost to us through their im- xxiense journeys beyond the orbit of the most ^stant Planet; so that theirnumber and periods ^^UiBot be easily determined. Q. How are their tails accounted for ? -A, Tiieir taik seem to be pto^vsit^ Vj «s«kr. SOLAR SYSTEM. 91 luminous matter in their atmosphere, which is visible only in the parts opposite to the Sun. Q. What is an Eclipse ? A. An Eclipse is a privation of light in any of the heavenly bodies ; caused by some other body coming between it and the Sun. There are various Kinds of eclipses ; but those of the San and Moon are the most remarkable. Q. How is an Eclipse caused ? A. An Eclipse of the Sun — or more properly of the Earth, — ^is caused by the Moon, as she re- volves in her orbit, passing between the Sun and the Earth, and thereby intercepting his lieht This Eclipse begins at the west side of the Sun, and can never happen except at the time of the new Moon. An Eclipse of the Moon is caused by the in- terposition of the Earth between the Sun and the Moon; this can only happen at the full Moon; for the Earth, being then between the Sun and the Moon, will sometimes intercept his light from the Moon. This Eclipse begins on the east side. Q. Do the Planets ever eclipse each other? A. The primary Planets can never eclipse each other, by reason of the bulk of the Sun, and the immense distances of these Planets from him: but a primary may eclipse its secondary, or a secondary, a primary: this is frequently the case with Jupiter and his satellites. M ^OlilTE LEAKNING. OP THE FIXEir STARS. Q. What are the Fixed Stars ? r A. The Fixed Stars are supposed to bo of the same nature with the Sun; and of equals or of greater, magnitude. They shine with their own native lustre, and are diminished in appearance only by their immense distance from us. These stars are said to be fixed, because they have, gen- erally been observed to retain the same situations with respect to each other. Q. What is their distance ? A. The nearest of the Fixed Stars, is computf ed to. be above 32 million of inillions of ^miles from us ; which is further than a cannon ball would fly in 700,000 years: and it is very proba- ble that they are situated as far from each other as they are from us ; for, there is no visible al- teration in their magnitudes, situations, or dis^ tances, when viewed from the different parts of the Earth'19 orbit ; consequently, the orbit of the Earth, which is 162 millions of miles in di^^me- ter, is only a point in comparison to their dis- tance. Hence, it is easy to prove, that the Sun, seen from so great a distance, would appear no bigger than a star; and that the surrounding system oi Planets and Comets must be invisible from the nearest Fixed Star. — From all tliis, it is highly pi^obable, that each star is a sun to a system of Planets, which, at various distances, and in dif- ^ f^nt periods, perform their re\o\w\!\oTaa xwwA ^^ GEOGRAPHT. 9S it ; thouffh iayisible to us^ by our best telescopes. Q. Wh^t is the number of the stars ? A. The real number of the Stars can^ever be known. But as the powers of the telescope are increased, a greater number is discovered. The British catalogue, which includes a great many that cannot be seen without the help of a teles- cope, contains only about 3000; and of this num- ber, the naked eye cannot, in the clearest night, discover more than 1000. There is a remarkable track around the heavens, called the mUky way, from its peculiar whiteness; which, in some parts, is single; in others, double; and waa, formerly, thou^t to be formed by an infinite number of ver^r small stars: but, the telescope shows it to be otherwise; and, therefore, its whiteness must be owing to some other cause. Q. As the Stars are fixed, what is the cause of their apparent motion ? A. The apparent motions of the Fixed Stars, or their risings and settings, are the efiects of the Earth's rotation on her axis from west to east: and our seeing difierent stars, at different seasons of the yea% is owing to the revolution of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun. GEOGRAPHY. Q. What is Geography ? A. Geography is that science which describes the surface of this globe, aa dvvv&^ Vcto^ \six^ and waterf ©4 POLITE LEAROTNG. Q. Is the study of Geography nebe^ssary ? A. The science of Geography is not only cu-- riou3 and entertaining, hut .highly 'useful. If opens and enlarges the mind ; gives a true know- ledge of the various situations of countifes, with ^eir rivers, mountains, &c. and is of such im- portance in history, that without it, nothing can be understood with satisfaction and coi^rectness. Q. How is the Earth proved to be globular? A. 1. By its casting a round shadow upon the moon during an eclipse. 2. By its having been circumnavigated. 3. By our seeing further the higher we are situated. 4. By our seeing the masts of a ship at sea, while the hull is hidden from us by the convexity of the water. The unevenness of the surface on land, aris- ing from hills and vales, can be no material ob- jection to its rotundity ; since the highest moun- tains bear no more proportion to the whole sur- face of the Earth, than the unevenness on the rind of an orange does to the roundness of its figure. Q. What is the ^ocis of the Earth ? A. The Axis of the Earth, is am imaginary riffht line, passing through its centre, and ter- mmating in the north and south poles. Q. What is the Equator^ or Equinoctial Line ? A. The Equator, or Equinoctial Line, is a circle encompassing the globe, in the middle, from east to west, and dividing it into northern and southern hemispheres. Q. When does the Sun ciosa ttvvaYm^> GEOGRAPHT. M A. The Sun crosses the line on the 20th of Marchy and i^2d of September; when the days and nights are equal, in all parts of the world. Q. What are Meridians ? A. Meridians are circles which run north and south, cross the Equator, and pass through the poles. Meridians are used to measure longitudes^ or the distance of one place, east or west, from another place. Q. What is the jR?c/«>/«c.? A. The Ecliptic is the Sun's apparent path in the heavens. Q. What is the Horizon ? A. The Horizon is that circle in the heavens which limits our vision, and divides the upper hemisphere from the lower. It is divided into 32 equal parts, called points, of which E. W. N. and S. are termed cardinal points. Q. What are we to understand by the Equi- noctial Points, or Equinoxes ? A. The Equinoctial Points, or Equinoxes, are those two points in which the Ecliptic cuts the Equator. Q. What^'are the Solstitial Points, or Sol- stices? A. The Solstitial Points, or Solstices, are th^ first points of the signs, Cancer and Capricorn; being 23i degrees from the Equator, and 90 from the Equinoxes. The Sun is in the summer Splstice, on the 2Ist of June, when the days are longest in the northern hemisphere — and m fQ% 'was^fit '^sJ^ M POLITE LEABNINC. stioe on the 21st of December; when the dajrs are the shortest Q. Is not the Ecliptic dfvided ? A. The Ecliptic is divided into 12oqual parts, of 30 degrees each; called the 12 signs of the Zodiac. A Q. What are the names, characters, and order of these ^igns ? A. The Signs are as follow — i Northern Signs. Jiries cf the Ram; Taurus {J the Bull; Gemini n the Twins; Cancer 25 the Crab-fish; Leo SL the Lion ; Virgo njj tlie Virgin. Southern Signs. Libra ^ the Balance ; Seorpio iti the Scor- pion; Sagittarius /the Archer; Capricamus yf the Mountain-goat; *^quarius ssf ^e Water- bearer ; Pisces X the Fishes, / Q. What are the Colures? A. The Colures are two MeridiaSis; one past- ing through the Equinoctial, and the other through the Solstitial point of the Ecliptic. Q. What is the ZcmM.? A% The Zenith is that point in the heavens directly over our heads. Q. What is the Nadir? A. The Nadir is that point directly oppositt the Zenith; and, therefore, und^ our feet Q. What are the Tropics? A. The Tropics are two circles, rtmning par- allel to the Equator, at the distance of 23} de- grees from it. That on the north is called the Tropic of Cancer; and that on the south, the Tropic of Capricorn. Q. Describe the Arctic and Antarctic, or Polar Circles. A. The Arctic Circle lies at the distance of 23i degrees from the north pole, and the An- tarctic, as far from the south pole. Q. What are Zones? A. Zones are five spaces into which the globe is supposed to be divided, by the Tropics and Polar Circles. , Q. Describe them. A. The Toprid Zane is 47 degrees broad, lies between the Tropics, has the Equator passing through the middle of it, and is very hot The Temperate Zones lie between the Tro- pics and Polar Circles, are 43 degrees broad, and moderate, as to heat and cold. The Frigid Zones extend from the Polar Cir- cles to the Poles — are 23i degrees broad, and excessively cold. Q. What are Climates? A. Climates are a sort of division of the earth, used by ancient geographers, to denote our approaching to, or receding from, the Equa- tor. The northern and southern hemispheres contain each thirty climates; of which twenty- tour, extending from the Equator to the Polar Circles, are termed hxmr c\\m^\fc^,^^^'^^^*^^^*^ six, month ones. 1 98 POLtTE LKARNINO. « Q. WhatisXatitude? A. Latitude is the distance of any place, no or south from the Equator. It never can exce&^ 90 decrees. Q. vVhat is Longitude ? A. Longitude is. the distance of any place or meridian, east or west, from the first meridian. It can never, with propriety, go heyond 180 de* greeSft The first meridian may be placed any where. But it is usually fixed at the metropolis of some country, as London, Paris, Washington, &c. Q. How is the Land divided ? A. The Land is divided into four p>rincipal parts, or quarters; called Europe, Asia, Africa, and America: which are subdivided into empires, kingdoms, states, islands, peninsulas, isthmuses, and promontories or capes. These, together, contain about 800 million of people. A Continent is a large extent of land, com- prehending several regions or countries, without an entire separation of its parts by water. An Island is a smaller portion of land, en- tirely surrounded by water. A Peninsula is a tract of land encompassed by water, except at one narrow part, by which it joins the neighbouring Continent An Isthmus is a neck, or narrow part of land, which joins a Peninsula to the Continent. A Promontory is a high point of land, stretching itself into the sea; the extremity of which is called a Cape or Promontory. Q. How is the Water dVv\d%(V "i GEOaRAPHT. , 99 A. The Water is divided into Oceans, Seas, Lakes, Gulfs, Straits, and Bays or Creeks. An, Ocean is a vast collection of water, with- out any separation of its parts by land. The whole expanse of water encompassing the land, fonns but one general Ocean; but it is generally divided into five parts; called, the Northern, Southern, Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans. More than two thirds of the whole surface of this globe are water. A Sea is a smaller collection of water, which communicates with the Ocean, and is confined by land. A Lake is a large collection of water, entirely surrounded by land. A Ghiify or Bay, is a part of the Ocean, run- ning up into the land ; and surrounded by it, except at a narrow passage, by which it commu- nicates with the Ocean: if a gulf be very large, it is called an inland sea: if very small, it is termed a Creek. A Strait is a part of the Ocean restrained be- tween two shores; an^ is the passage which joins one body of water to another. Q. Have not these divisions of land and water some resemblance to each other ? A. Yes; a Continent is similar, in extent, to an Ocean ; an Island, encompassed by water, re- sembles a Lake encompassed by land ; a Penin- sula of land, is- like a Gulf or Inland Sea; an Isthmus, whereby two bodies of land are joined^^ resembles a Strait, which utiV\«&\:?^^\5K^^^» ^ 1°^i S'f ■ili*.• ■5■ 4"'5f:2l iiliil g '^mn p|i i|||||ill liilllllillli I'-ii". iil:i:;.: = .J-_r .o&" ■ ■. = ■ S ■ _"l |ll§liiliiii§§§ii§i§ i 11111111 MS'- m^ GEOGRAPHY* 1«8 lat Islands in the Mediterranean. Islands. lyica, Majorca^ Minorca, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Corfu, Cephdonia, Zant, * Chief Towns. Ivica. Palma. Citadella. Bastia. Cagliari. Palermo. Valetta. Corfu. Cephalonia. Zant. Islands. Candia, Cyprus,* Negropont, Lemnos, Soio,* Samos. * Rhodes,* Mytilene. Nixia. Chief Towns. Candia. Nicosia. Negropont Lemnos. Scio. Rhodes. 2d. The Irish Sea, and British ChanneL Jersey, St Heiler. Guernsey. Wight, Newport Anglesea, Holyhead. Man. 3d. On the North and West of Scotland, Orkneys, Kirkwall. Hebrides, Stornway. Shetlands, Lerwick. Feroes. Iceland, Skalholt The Europeans in general are well made, and tolerably fair, except in Spain, where they in- cline to be swarthy: the Spaniards and Hunga- rians wear whiskers, and the Turks, long beards. Q. What are the commodities of these coun^ tries ? 'f'Theae «re AsiaSoQ 104 POLITE LEARNING A. The commodities in the northr.n parts g( Europe, are, pitch, tar, rosin, hemp, deals, masts, lurs, iron, coal, and tin. In the middle parts, — corn, elder, hops, salt, lace, lawn, cambrick, woollen, and linen cloths, leather, clocks, watches, hardware, toys, paper, hats, gloves, and glass. In the south, are — ^wine, rice, raisins, oranges, lemons, cotton, marble, alum, amber, velvet, and mohair. Q. What are the chief mountains ? A. The chief mountains are, the Dofrine hills, between Sweden and Norway; the Hyperborsean mountains, in Russia; the Cheviot hilln between England and Scotland; the Pyrenees, between Spain and France; the Alps, in Switzerland, the south of France, and north of Italy; and the Appennines, which run through Italy from north to south. Besides these, there are, Etna or 6i- bel, in Sicily ; Vesuvius, near Naples; and Hec- la, in Icelafiid.; which are volcanic or burning lno^ntains* . Q. What are the most noted rivers ? A. The most considerable rivers, as enu- merated, folio 102, are, — ^the Danube, which runs through Germany, Hungaty, and Turkey; the Rhine, Elbe, ^nd Qd^r, in Germany; Loire, Rhone, and Seine^ in France; Ducto, and Ta- gus, in Portugal ; Guadiana, GuadalquivjBr, and Ebro, in Spaing Tiber, and Po, in Italy ; Volga, and Don, in Russia; Thames, and Severn, in England ; Forth, and Tweed, in Scotland; and S^Mnnotif and Lififey, in Irelari^i. GBOGRAPHT. %Q^ OF ASIA. Q. How long and broad is Asia, and how is it bounded ? A. Asia is: about 4700 miles long, and 4300 broad; and is supposed to contain about 500 mil- lion of people. It is bounded, on the east, by the Pacific ocean^ — west, by Europe, the Black, and Mediterranean seas — north, by the Frozen ocean — and south, by the Indian ocean-^^nd south-west by the Red sea. Q. What is it that makes the Geography of Asia part^ilarly interesting ? A. We feel a particular interest in the Geo- graphy of Asia, because it was there, according to the sacred aAXii^lS; liiat the Garden of Eden was planted, and our first parents, created; there, stood the famous tower of Babel, the magodficent temple of Solomon, and the renowned cities of Sodom, GomoYrah, Nineveh, Babylon, Troy, &c. In this country, our Saviour was bom, and completed the great work of our redemption: in short, this was me theatre of almost every action recorded in the holy Scriptures. Though Asia contains so vast a population, yet the great mass of its inhabitants, are, till this day, enveloped in Pagan darkness. The principal divisions are as follow, viz. — 106 POLITE LEARNING* Cotttttries. ^ f Russian § I Chinese Mogul Independent China Tonquin Laos Coehinchina Cambodia Siam Malacca Pegu Burmah Thibet Assam Hindoostan Pro. Deccan Mysore Camatic Persia Arabia Syria Palestine Natolia Diarbec Irak Arabia Armenia Curdistan Georgia Circassia I' Chief Towns. Tobolsk Chynian Samarcand Pekin Cachao Lanjan Thonaoa Cambodia Siam Malacca Pegua, Uninflrapoor Ava Lassa Cherpng Delhi, Calcutta Hydrabad Seringapatam Madras Schirasy Ispahan Mecca Aleppo Jerusalem Smyrna Diarbekar Baedad E^nim Scherazor TefiUs aEOGRAPitir. • 10? 7%e foUotoing are some of the most extensive cities of Asia, vnth their population. Pekin, 3^000,000 Calcutta, 650,000 Nankin, 2,000,000 Benares, 582,000 Canton, 1,500,000 Surat, 550,000 King.te-ching,l,100,000 Meiico, 500,000 Hang-cheoU| 1,000,000 Madras, 350,000 Luckn6w> 300,000 Lahore, ' 170,000 Patna, 275,000 Cashmere, 160,000 Aleppo, 250,000 Delhi, 150,000 Pftttan, , ^40,000 Cambay, 150,000 Bombay, 220,000 Moorshedabad , 150,000 Yang-cheou, 200,000 Smyrna, 150,000 ,Cabul, 200,000 Dacca, 150,000 Damascus, 200,000 Erzerum) 150,000 Ispahan, 200,000 Siam, 120,000 Ummerapoora, 175,000 - Jeddo, coital of Japan, is commonly considered ai containing one million of inhabitants; but the Japan^^ ese say it contains ten times that number. /Thfe Turks, Persians, Moguls, and Chinese, Mre of good shape and complexion. The people of India are taw^ny; but their featui^s are pleas'- ing. The Tartars, Chinese, and people of In- dia, pull their beards up by the root Q. In what does the Trade of these nations consist? A. The chief articles of Trade in the regions of Tartary, are sables, martins, fut^, vcwvy^'^omc- oarb, musk, &c.; in other p%xt&»— ^ii^> ^^\^w^% WB POLITE LEARNING. carpets, tapestry, and mohair; cinnamon, nut- megs, aloes, myrrh, camphire, and manna; cof- fee, tea, gold dust, quicksilver, diamonds, porce- lain, and lacker; japan wares, &c. Q. What are the islands of Asia ? A. The Islands of Asia are very numeroas The principal one in size, is New Holland, sur- rounded by the Indian and the Pacific ocean; — ^the others, of the most note, are Borneo, Celebes, Sumatra, Java, and Ceylon, in the Indian ocean; Niphon, New Guinea, Formosa, Luconia, Min« danoa, in the Pacific ocean: and Cyprus, in the Levant or eastern part of the Mediteiranean sea. Q. Are there any remarkable mountains in this quarter ? A. The most remarkable mountains are, Ara- rat, near the Caspian sea, on which the ark rest- ed after the flood; Horeb, and Sinai, in Arabia; Libanus, in Palestine; Imaus, in Tartary, Cau- casus, between the Black and Caspian seas; ^nd Taurus, running from east to west; through all Asia. Q. What are the rivers of Asia ? A. The principal rivers of Asia are, the Ti- ?*is and Euphrates, between Arabia and Persia obal and Oby, in Tartary; Ganges and 'Indus, in India ; and the Hoang-ho and Tay, in China. On the north of China, runs a vast brick wall, siipposed to be 1500 miles in length, from d0 to 25 or 30 feet high, and broad enough lot six hoir^men to travel ftbreast with ease: it Vas &ai!t before the commencement o( l\v^ Christitti ^tn, and, even at this time, is \vt\X^ ^%i»pj^^. '\ ■•» OF AFRICA. Q. C^ you give thelength, breadth, and boun« daries of Africa ? , , A. Africa, in its greatest length from north to south, is about 4,300. miles; and its utmost breadth, 3,500. It is bounded on the E. by the Indian ocean,< — on the W. by the Atlantic,— oh the fi. by the Mediterranean, — and on th§ S, by the S. AtUntic and the Sbutherni ocean. ^ The southern extremity of Africa, Is called the Cape of Good Hope. Africa is entirely sur- rounded by water, except at the Isthmus of Suez, about 120 miles over, between the Medi- terranean, and the Red sea. Africa contains 11,044,000 square miles, and about 70,000,000 of inhabitants. Q. What are the countries of Africa ? A. This quarter, except along the coast, is imperfectly known; but, according to the best accounts and conjectures, it may be divided as follows:—^ K^ AFRICA* Countries. " Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli) ^Barca, Pezzan, tJgypt) Tafilet^ ^ Biled-el-gerid, Ot Land of Dates. K Chief Tovrns. Morocco. Algiers. Tunis. Tripoli. Derne* Mour2ouk« Cairo. Tafilet. no POLITE LEABNING. Conntriet. Foulahs. Jaloffs. Dahdmey^ Benin, Biafra^ ^oango, Congo, Angola. B^nguela, W. AFRICA. Chief Towns. Abomey. Benin. •Biaira. ^ Loango. St S^vador. Benguela. S. AFRICA. Caffraria, Colony of Good Hope, Hottentots. CLatahoOf and 'I Kurrechane. y Cape Town. E. AFRICA. tnhamb&ne, and Sabiai Sofola, Mocaranga, Mozambique^ Melinda, Magadaxa. Ajan, and Adel. Abyssinia, Nubia, DoDgola. Sofola. Zimbao. Mozambique. Melinda. Gondar. Sennaar^ GEOl&RAPHT. Ill CENTRAL AFRICA. Countries. Chief Towni . Zahara, or the Great Desert Tombuctoo, Tombuetoo, Soudan. Darfur, Cobbe. In Egypt, Bilidulgerid, Zakara, and Abyssinia^ the people are of a tawny complexion; but in all other parts they are quite black, have fiat noses, thick lips, and woolly hain Q. What are the commodities of Africa ? A. The commodities in Barbary, Egypt, and Nubia, are rice, figs, raisins, orangQ3, lemons, citroqs and almonc^; pomegranates, olives, and senna; leather, civet, sugar, and indigo: in Ni- gritia and Guinea, — ostrich's feathers, gold dust, elephants' teeth, and pepper: in the south, along the coast, — ambergris,, frankincense, musk, mil- let, pearls, gold, silver, &c. But the persons of the natives make the most considerable article in the traffic on the Guinea or Western coast; where the Europeans and Americans, to the disgrace of humanity, and contrary to their own laws, purchase them, like sa many cattle, carry them to the West Indies, or to the American continent, and sell them for slaves. Q. What are the Islands of this quarter ? A. The only considerable Island in size, is Madagascar^ in the .Indian ocean*, lYv^ q\\\^\% «x^ dJ small. The most remarkable are?>\- 'ftAcaa-* ili POLITE LEARNING. Ascension, St Jago, St Vincent, Mayo, Canary, Teneriffe, Ferro, and Madeira, in ^e Atlantic ocean. Q. Are there any Mountains of note ? A. The principal Mountains are, Sierra Leone, or Lion Mountains, between Nigritia and Gui nea;> Atlas, between Barbary and Bilidulgerid, the Mountains of the Moon, between Abyssinia and Monomotapa; . and the Peak of Teneriffe, which rises nearly three miles above the level of the sea. Q. What are its Rivers ? A. The Rivers of Africa are neither numerous nor large, the Nile excepted: the most noted, are the Nile, in Nubia and Egypt; and the Niger, running through all Nigritia ; of which, the Gam- bia and Senegal are branches. Q. Give me some account of the Pyramids of Egypt ? A. The Pyramids of Egypt, near Cairo, are the most stupendous structures that ever were raised by the hands of men J the basis of the largest covers eleven acres of ground, and its perpendicular height is 500 feet; but if measured obliquely, 700 feet Their antiquity is beyond lite researches of history, and their original use, nill unknown. OF AMERICA. Q. Give me some account of America. A. The continent of Axnerie^i \^ caxsv^osed of /iro great peninsulas, joined \>^^ ^ xvfc^ cA ^as5^ GEOGRAPHY. 113 about 60 miles over, called the Isthmus of' Da- rien or Panama. These, taken togetner, extend from N. to S. about 8,000 miles, and are of very unequal breadth. • Q. When, and by whom, was Americ^i first discovered ? A. America was discovered in the year 1492, by Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa: he left Palos, in Spain, on the 3d of August, with three small ships, fitted out for him by Isabella, queen of Castile; and, after a perilous voyage o^ 33 days, landed on one of the Bahama islands; where the astonished natives, simple, naked, tim- orous, and inofiensive, received and treated him and his companions as beings of a superior order, and of celestial origin. Columbus afterwards visited several other islands, of the same group; and, in directing his course southerly, fell in with Cuba and Hispa- niola ; which he found, not only inhabited by a humane, hospitably people, but abounding in all the necessaries and comforts of life. Q. Did Cojumbus ever return again to Spain ? A. Columbus reti^rned to Spain, and was re* ceived with unbounded applause, and treated with the greatest respect He visited America again several times, and extended his discoveries grpatly to the emolument of the Spanish crown*, but tfie yngrateful Ferdinand, after the death of his qjueen, Isabella, who had been the friend and patrQi^ss of Columbus, suiSered him to waste the evening of his days, injured and opipt^"5fc^* ^^ K 2 114 POLITE LEARNING. died ftt Valadolid, the capital of Castile, in the 59th year of his age, A. D. 1506. Q. Whence does America take its name? A. America takes its name from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine; who, among a multitude of other adventurers, was drawn from the shores of Europe to the new World, in quest of riches. He sailed to the southern continent, wrote a his- tory of his voyage, and had the address, there- by, to give his name to half the globe. Q. When, and by whom, was North America first discovered ? A. North America was first discovered in the year 1497, by Sebastian Cabot, a native of Bristol, England; when sailing on a voyage of discovery, in the emplpyment of Henry vfi, Q. Did not the Spaniards early plant colonies in some of the West Indian islands ? A. The Spaniards planted colonies in sev- eral of the West Indian Islands, soon after their discovery ; and, thence, by cunning, conquest, and cruelty, they, after a few years, establish- ed themselves in many extensive and fertile re- gions, both of North and South America. Q. -Who were the principal agents in these conquests and establishments ? A. The principal agents in the Spanish con- 3uests and establishments in America, were Fer- inando Cortes and Francisco Pizarro, two mon- sters of cruelty, by whose instrurtientality, vast multitudes of innocent natives perished in the Barnes, by the sword, and otYiev Tcve^iv^. Cortes subdued the MexvcMi* Aq^Xn^wsv ^^da GEOGRAPHY. lift years lil8 and 1522; and PizarrOy about the' year 1535, conquered Peru, and founded the city of Lima. Q. Whence is it supposed that America was first peopled ? . A» America is supposed to have been first peopled from the north-east part of Asia ; but a what time is very uncertain: it must, however, have been many hundred years before Colum- bus's discovery ; as, Mexico, Peru, and the West Indies, were all, at that time, very populous. OF NORTH AMERICA. Q. Give me the length, breadth, and bounda- ries of North America. A. North America is nearly 5,000 miles long, and from 1,000 to 3,000 broad ; bounded E. by the Atlantic; W. by the Pacific; N. by the Northern ocean ; and S. by the Gulf of Mexico ^ and South America. Q. What are its grand divisions ? A. The grand divisions of North America, are — 1st. The British Colonies, on the N. 2d. The United States, in the middle; and j 3d. Spanish Amei'ica, on the S. W. ; besides extensive regions of unexplored country, lying to the N. and N. W. of the United States, and inhabited by numerous tribes of Indians^of vrVv^ycsv we know but Utile, 118 POLITE LEABNIN6. BRITISH COLONIES. Colonies. Newfoundland, Cape Breton, St. Johns, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Lower Canada, Upper Canada, Chief Towns. Placentia. Islands. < Sydney. Charlotte Town. Halifax. Frederickstown. Quebec. York. New Britain, a sterile, cold country, including Hudson's Bay and Esquimaux, with New North and South Wales. Quebec is situated on the St Lawrence riyer, contains about 10,000 inhabitants, is the capital of all British Amer- icaLand residence of the Governor General. These countries are yaluable, chiefly for their fisheries^ for, trade, and lumber. UNITED STATES. Q. What do you know of the history of that part of America, now called the United States ? A. The United States was originally an ex- tensive wilderness, inhabited by numerous tribes of warlike Indians ; and though it was known to the English as early as 1498, they were not able to effect any permanent settlement in any part of it till about the year 1607; when they sue- ceeded w establishing a colony at James-town, in Virginia. Other settlemenVs Nvet^ ^\Kr««t^^ GKOGRABHY. 1X7 made^ by emigrants from Europe^ in different parts of this territory. Q. Did not these infant colonies suffer consid- erably by the Indians ? A. Yes; many of the first settlers were en- tirely cut off by the Indians, and many perished by hunger. Q. Can you proceed with this narrative ? A. Yes; and I observe, that in process of time. Great Britain, either by treaty or conquest, became mistress of the whole continent^ from the frozen regions of the north, to the Gulf of Mexico on the south; and the colonies^ chiefly composed of emigrants from her, grew in strength, wealth, and resources, with amazing rapidity. Q. Did these colonies appear to feel any mear sure of attachment to Great Britain ? A. The attachment of the colonies to Great Britain was very great: they cheerfully fought her battles, submitted to her government, and received her laws; which, for a long time, were wise and equitable. Q. Did any thing occur to interrupt this har- mony and good understanding ? A. Yes: in the year 1765,. the British parlia- ment changed their measures towards the Amer- ican colonies; and, attempting to raise a revenue from them, by oppressive taxes, and spurning their remonstrance and petitions for redress, lost their affections and their confidence, and roused. Aeiti to resjstaace and opposUiou 1 18 POUTE LEARNING. Of. What measures were afterwards adopted by the Americans ? A. The Americans united for their mutual de- fence, chose deputies to represent them in con« gress, and to conduct their public affairs. These deputies first met at Philadelphia, in September, 1774. The breach continued to widen, a war ensued, and on the 19th of April, 1775, the first battle, between the American and British armies, was fought at Lexington, near Boston ; and oil the 4th of July, in the following year, the Con- Sessy-then sitting at Philadelphia, declared the nited Colonies, then 13 in number, to be frtt and independent states. Q. Of what does the Union now consist ? A. The Union now consists of 24 regularly organized and independent states, together with three extensive regions of countiy called Terri- tories, out of which additional states will, no doubt^ in time, be erected. These 24 states con- tain about - - - 796,000 square miles. The Territories, 1,286,000 Total, 2,082,000 square miles. Q. Who was commander in chief of the American armies during this war ? A. The commander in chief of the American armies, was George Washington, a native of Vir- ginia. Q. How long did this war last ? A. The war lasted about eight years ^ during vrhich time, great valour and m^^iv^vQ\\\7j >^^s^ 6SOGRAPHT. 119 displayed, and incredible sufferings endurea, by the Americans. Q. Who ultimately triumphed? and when was peace established ? A. The Americans at length gained their point; and peace was concluded in 1782: when Great Britain, after expending nearly 120 mil- lions of money, and losing 50,000 men, relin- quished all claim to the dominion of these states, and yielded, reluctantly y to their armis what she had long haughtily refused to their prayers. Q. Did America receive any foreign fdd in this struggle for liberty ? . A. Yes ; early in the contest, France acknow-* ledged the independence of the United States, and lent them aid, both in monftty and men; and^ afterwards, Holland also gave pecuniary assis- tance, and, as well as Spain, was arrayed in arms against Great Britain. Q. Does the same confederation into which the states entered at the commencement of the war, still continue? A. No: the original confederation was soon found to be inadequate to the purposes for which it was framed: delegates were appointed from the several states, to form a new constitution; which was drawn at Philadelphia, in 1 787; and in 1789 it was organized, and still continues the supreme law of the land. Q. What form of government was adopted in the United States ? A. The form of government a4o^\fedL '\xv >j^^ Cnited States, was Republican: it \s N%sVft^ '^^ ^ >t20 POLITE LfiABNtNG. President and two lejcislatiTe •branched^ vis. a Senate and House of Representatives. All the individual state governments are also republican* Q. How is the President appointed ? A. The President and Vice-President are chosen by electors, who 'are appointed by the people for that purpose. They continue in office four years, and may be reelected as often as the people think proper. Q. By whom are the Senators chosen ? A. Senators are chosen by the state Legisla* tures: two by each state; with a biennial rotatioit of one-third. Their term of office is six years. Q. By whom are the House of Representa- tives chosen ? A. The House of Representatives are chosen 1 by the people at large; one for every 58,000^ and to serve two years. Q. Who was the first President of the United States ? A. The first President of the United States was George Washington: he was twice unani- mously elected to. that office. Upon his declio' ins a third election, he was succeeded by John Adams. After serving one term, he gave place toJThomSw Jefiierson; who, having served two terms, and declined a third election, was follow- ed by James Madison, for eight years ; and he, by James Monroe, who also served eight years; and was succeeded by John Quincy Adams, who, after serving four years> was succeeded by Andrew Jackson, out ^lesfcxvV c.Vv\ftf \s\a.^S' i trate* ^ Q. How are the X3mledSvaV«i^>aoxBA^^\ A. The Uniied States audxYie\£\»TTY\.ox>s»^ bounded E. by the Atlantic and New Brans- wick^ — ^W. by the Pacific, — N. by Canada and the Lakes, — and S. by the Gulf of Mexico, and New Spain, or Mexico. They embrace about 1400 miles of sea coast, on the Atlantic, and 500 on the Pacific, and ex- tend in various breadths, from ocean to ocean, a distance of more than 3,000 geographical miles, and contain nearly lOJ millions of inhabitants. Q. What is the military strength of the United States? A. The military strength of the United States lies in a Well disciplined militia, of about 900,000 freemen, with about 10,000 standing troops employed on the frontiers, and in the dif- ferent fortresses of the Union. Its navy, estab- lished only for the protection of commerce, is yet in its infancy, and consists of ' 7 line of battle ships of 74 guns each. 7 frigates 3 do. , 2 do. 13 sloops of war 6 schooners 14 of smaller size, as gallies, gun-boats, &c. 2 of 74 guns each, are laid up under cover; and 5 line ofbattle ships, and 4 frigates, are now build Q. What have you to observe respecting the soil and climate of this country ? A. The climates vary from warm to very cold: the soil has all the grades, fcoxo. inorst \a 3e^// and produces, oi*, ,. W cvAtiv^Juoiv^ xcva;:^ ^^ of 44 do. of 36 do. of 24 do. of. 18 do. of 12 do. -X'T:::: 122 POLITE LEABNING. brought tD produce, almost every species df eraiiiy fruit, pulse, roots, and plants, found in the different parts of the world. Q. What are the principal mountains? A. The principal mountains in the United States, are the White mountains in New Hamp- shire; — tile Alleghany mountains, .which include a great number of ridges, under various names, extending from Hudson's river, in the state of New York, in a south-western direction, up- wards of 900 miles; in various breadths, from 60 to 150 miles; — also the Stony and Californian mountains in the west Q. Describe the face of thei country in the United States ? A. Between the Alleghanies and the ocean^ the face of the country is generally level; espe- cially to the southward; but, west of the AUe- S^hanies, it is finely diversified, well watered, and ertile. The eastern, or New England states^ are elevated, rocky, and uneven. On, and within, the northern boundary of the United States, is a chain of fresh water lakes; the largest, perhaps, in the world. Lake Erie is 300 miles long, and 40 broad — Ontario and Michigan^ each, in circumference 600 miles— Huron, 1000 miles; and Superior, 1500. Be- tween Lake Erie and Ontario, are the great falls of Niagara. The river is here 742 yards wide, and falls 137, or, as some say, 150 feet, perpen- dicularly, over a rock; affording a scene, at once tJ^e most awful, romantic^ and interesting, that can be imagined. GEOGRAPHY. 1«S The noise of this astonishing cataract, is heard to the distance of 20, 30, or even 40, miles; and a constant mist arises from it, in which, when the sun shines, may be seen all the colours of the rainbow. In the winter, this mist congeals on the neighbouring trees, and exhibits the most beautiful appearances. There is, on the Mississippi, a pleasing cata- ract, called St Anthony's Falls; where the whole river, 250 yards wide, descends, perpen- dicularly, more than 50 feet Another remarka- ble cascade, named the Falling Spring, is seen on a branch of James's River, in Virginia; where the descent is at least 200 feet, perpendicular. Q. Have the United States any considerable commerce ? A. Yes: the merchants of the United States trade extensively with almost every part of the commercial world. Q. What are the principal articles of their trade? A. The principal exports from the United States, are cotton, tobacco, flour, corn, rice, flax- seed^ pitch, tar, lumber, potashes, salted fish, and oil. The imports consist, chiefly, of cloths, and hardwares; tea, coffee, sugar, spirits, and wines, Q. What is the capital of the United States? A. Washington, a flourishing city in the Dis- trict of Columbia, on the Potomack, is the capital of the United States. Washington lies in 37 deg. 53 min. N. lat is 139 miles S. W. from Philadelphia, and 40 from Baltimore, and Yav3 contaii3 about 1 5, 000 inhabitants. TYve ^o^wNa^ci^^ }fthe whole district maybe esUraaXfed «1 ^'$^,^^^ POLITE LEARNING. I 6 - i i pilippipipipiip! iifliiiiiilfiiiiiiifi^ «83i!S!Si§aS|518IISSSSIS5iSil8l s k. 4?ilJllilIllll5lir4r=.Ai\*«. GEOGRAPHY. 12& MEXICO, IN NORTH AMERICA. Q. How is Mexico bounded ? A. It was formerly a province of Spain, but is now independent, and divided into two States, Mexico and Central America. They comprehend an extensive country, and lie between t^ie territories of the United States, and. the Gulf of Mexico on the E. and the Pa- cific on the W. stretching from the Isthmus of Darien on the South, to the 41st deg. of N. lat. Q. What of the soil and climate ? A. The climate, in many parts, is insalubri* ous in summer, but mild and healthy in winter. The soil is, in the highest degree, productive. INDEPENDENT STATES. Population. Capital. Populatipo. Mexico, 8,000,000 Central America, 2,000,000 Mexico, 150,000 Gautimala, 60,000 Q. What possessions has Russia in North America ? A. Russia claims the north-west section of North America, from Portlock harbour, round to Cape Prince of Wales, j at Bhering's straits. This territory is valuable chiefly for its fur trade. L2 IM POLITG LEARNING. SOUTH AMERICA. Q: What is South America ? % A. South America is a vast peninsula, o( a triangular form, nearly encompassed by the great South sea. It is upwards of 4000 miles long, by about 3000 broad, and is conniected to North America by the isthmus of Darien. Q. What of the mountains of South America? A. The Andes, extending from north to south, the whole length of this continent, are the loftiest^ ^and most extensive ratige of mountains upon the whole fac^ of the globe, and embosom several volcanoes of the most sublime and ter« rific description. ChimborazOf the most elevated point of fh» Andes, rises 2 J, 500 feet above the level of the . sea, which is more than 6000 feet higher than the summit of the celebrated Mont Blanc of Savoy. Q.^What are the principal Rivers of South America? A. The principal Rivers of South Ameri<», ate the Amazon, La Plata, Orinoko, Para^ and St. Francis; with many others of less size and note. Amazon, 3000 miles long, of great width and depth, is the largest river in the world; and, the La I'lata, upwards of 2000 miles long, and near the mouth, 150 broad, is little inferior to it Q. What of the soil and climate of South America ? A. ''So extensive a region must have a gveiit * Except the ffimmaleh Jtfotmiaint^ on the north of Hin- dostan, the jhighest peak of wbicVi i& «!udL\o>^'9&f»;^l'»X Mbore the level of the sea. GEOGRAPHY. m variety, both of soil and climate; but, it may be observed, in general, that the bountiful Creator has here bestowed liberally whatever is neces- sary for the comfort and convenience of man. South America has long beer^ Celebrated for its rich mines of gold and silver. The whole population may be estimated at about 15 mil- lions : some of the natives (the Patagonians) are of colossal stature. Q. What are the principal divisions of South America? A. South America is divided into the fol- lowing INDEPENDENT STATES. Columbia, ) Venezuela, \ Peru, Bolivia, « Chili, Buenos Ayres, Rep. Uraguay, Paraguay, BrazU, Population. d,ooo,qpo 1,600,000 1,200,000 800,000 2,000,000 4,000,000 Capital. Bogota, Caraccas, Lima, Chucjuisaca, Santiago, Buenos Ayres, Monte Video, Assumption, Rio Janeiro, Population. 50,000 30,000 60,000 30,000 40,000 80,000 10,000 12,000 150,000 Other Towns. Carfhagena, Panama, Quito, Truxillo, Cusco^ Guamanga, Arequipa, La Plata, Potosl, Valpa- raiso, Santiago, Santa Fe, St. Salvador, Per- nambuco, Cayenne, Demarara^ ¥ THE WEST INDIES. Q, What is to be understood. >>n ^•a'^ «*■ indies? 128 POLITE LEARNING. A. Under the general term, West Indies, ar« included a multitude of Islands, lyingfin several groups, between the two great continents of North and South America. They belong to different European powers: several of them are of considerable size, and great commercial importance. Q. What of the climate and seasons ? A. As the West India islands all lie within the torrid zone, they are oppressed with great heat, and have neither frost, snow, nor cold weather; the rains making the only distinction of seasons. Violent bail-storms, however, some^ times happen, and earthquakes are notuncommon. Q. What are the principal j rticles of produce and exportation ? A. The principal articles of produce and ex- portation, are sugar, and coffee ; cotton, rum, and molasses; ginger, pepper, allspice, co^a, and fruits. All the labour of cultivation is performed hj the negroes, who compose more than seven- eighths of the whole population, which is about 2,400,000. The principal islands, with their chief towns, are as follow, viz. Idands. Towns. Inhabitants. Cuba, Havana, 12,000 S. Hayti, or CCape Frangais, 8,000 St IBmingo, ^St. Domingo, 25,000 Porto Rico, Porto IRito, - ^ %a CHRONOLOGY. Islands. Towns. St Thomas, - - /- St. Jphn, - , » - Tortola, S|| Croix, . St Eustatia, Eustatia, St Christophers, Bassetterre, Antigua, ^ ^St Johns, Guadalope, BasseUerre, Dominica, Martinique, St Lucia, Barbadoes, St Vincent^ Grenada, Tobago, Curacoa, - Chaifotte Town, Fort Royal, St Pierre, Bridge T|)wn, - , - Kingston, Port Royal, 189 Da. Da. sE. Da. Du. E. R F. E. F. . F. E. E. E. E. Du. CHRONOLOGY. Q. What is Chronology ? A. Chronology is the science of cosiputing time, disthigui^hing its parts, and ascertaining the true period of events. Q. What C^ironology is most ancient ? , A. The most ancient Chronology is that given * by Moses, which. fixes the creation of4he worii£f at 4004 yearr before the birth of Christ, ^|^ which, by adding the current year A. D. 182^, makes the wof*ld to have existed 5830 yeai«. The ancient Greeks computed tim^ \s^ Q>S?5\s\ ^ piads^ or periods of 4 years; t\ve ^otcv-wx^ x%r^- gpedfrmi the building of B.ome,TSSt ^^«x%>^^ 130 POLITE LEARNING. fore Christ; and the Mahometans, from the He- gira, or flight of Mahomet to Mecca, in 622 of the Christian era. Q. What is Time? Am the institution of the Olympic games;* ich they celebrated at the beginning of every \ year, in a plain near the town of Olympias. V What is a Licsirum ? tiese games were contests in running wrestUix^- \gy chariot races, &c. infttitoXe^ \s^^ft«t«»^R» '^ tt" of Jupiter, 744 years beiox^ C\«:\aX. 136 POUTE LEARNING. A. A Lustrum is a space of five years; used only by the Roman poets. Q. What is an Indiction? A. An Indiction is a revolution of fifteen years ; used by the Romans, for indicting the time of certain payments made by the people to the republic. Q. Whatisa«7tTsantlnues. Q. What are meant by the seasons of the year ? A. The seasons of the year are those changes and varieties which are produced in nature, by the revolution of the earth around^ the sun. Q. What are the* seasons called; and how long do they continue ? A. The seasons are called Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter; each continuing three months. Q. When does each of these seasons begin ? A. Spring begins on the 21st of March; Summery on the 21st of June; Autumn^ on the 23d of September; and Winter y on the 21st of December. Q. What are the Dog-days ? A. The Dog-days are the oppressively hot 4ays which elapse between the 19th of July and the 28th of August They have their name from the great Dog star; which is observed, during that time, to rise and set with the sun. 1^6 POLITE LEARNING. MYTHOLOGY. Q. What is Mythology ? A. Mythology is the history and explication of the fabulous gods and heroes of the heathen world. 'Q. Whence is the word Mythology derived? A. Thevword Mythology is derived from the Greek 'Wt/bds muthos, a fable, and logos j a de- scription. Q. Of what use is a knowledge of these fa bles? A. A knowledge of Mythology enables us to read, with advantage, the ancient classic authprs, to understand the allusions of the poets, and to explain the historic and fabulous representations often found in pictures, &c. Q. How are the heathen gods divided ? A. The heathen gods are divided into six classes ; the celestial, terrestrial, marine, infernal, subordinate, and demi-gods. OF THE CELESTIAL DEITIES. Q. Who are the Celestial Deities ? A. The gods of this class, are, Jupiter, Apol- lo, Mercury, Bacchus, and Mars; and the god- desses, Juno, Minerva, and Venus. Q. 'Who yrtks Jupiter? A. Jupiter was the sovereign god of the hea- ihens;* the ^on of Saturn and Ops, born in * The lieathens, in general, \ie\\eve^>i5Ka.\.\>afft^^^«^ oae supreme God : but, wben ^ev cowsi^ews^ ^^sfl& ^»ft MYTHOLOGY. I3j9 Crete, at the same birth with Juno. He m«p- ried his sister Juno, expelled his father out of his kingdom, and divided it with his brethf^n. He is represented, in poetic fiction, as having metamorphosed himself into a swan, for Leda — into a bull^ for Europa — ^into a shower of goldj for Dana^ — into a shepherdj for Mnemoysnfe; and^ thus, to have filled heaven with his natural children. Q. How was the sovereign authority divided amongst the sons of Saturn ? A. Jupiter, as the eldest, had the heavens; Neptune, the waters; and Pluto, the Infernal re- gions. Qp Had Jupiter any children by Juno ? A. Jupiter had two sons, Vulcan and Mars, and a daughter 'named Hebe; whom, for her ex- traordinary beauty, he made goddess of youth. She was likewise his cupbearer, and poured out . great being as influencing the affairs of the^world, thenr gave him as many different names ; and hence prdc^^ed leir variety of nominal gods. When he thuri^^ or lightened, they called him Jupiter ; when he calmed the sea, Neptune ; when he guided their councils, Mifierva; and when he gave them strength in battle, Mars. In Srocess of time, they used different representations of this upiter, Neptune, &c. and considered them, yulrarly at least, as so many different persons. Afterwards they re- garded each in different views ; according as they showered down blessings, or inflicted punishments. There was also one Jupiter for Europe, and another for Africa; and in Europe there was one great Jupiter who was the particular friend of the Athenians, and another who was the a^eav^A. protector of the Romans. There "w» ^c^tc^ "^ \sy«\s. vsv Italy that had not a Jupiter of its own. IxvVfcA^^wi^^^^*^ had temples and different cbaraclerai!lttva&\.escsr3 -vX^sbc^ 1>«) POLITE LEARNING. the nectar, the drink of the gods ; which they called ambrosia. Q. How is Jupiter represented ? A. Jupiter is generally painted as sitting with the fulmenv or thunder, or rather lightning, in one hand, and a sceptre and eagle in the other. Sometimes, an eagle is placed at his feet ; that bird having the title of his armour-bearer; and when represented in a chariot, he is drawn by four horses. Q. Who were the parents of Apollo ? A. Jupiter and Latona were the parents of Apollo: he was born in the island of Delos, at the same birth with Diana. • Q. .What advanced Apollo among the gods? A. Apollo was advanced among the gods, by the invefition of physic, music, poetry, and rhet- oric, v^hich are ascribed to him; and, therefore, he is said to preside over the muses. He had a famous temple at Delphos; where his oracles i^ere in great estimation. Q. Jn what manner is Apollo distinguished ? A. Apollo is distinguished by the beauty of his face and the gracefulness of his figure; and by a laurel crown on his head, a bow arid arrows in one hand, and a harp in the other. Q. Does not Apollo sometimes mean the sun? A. Apollo is sometimes used for the sun: he is also the god ^ of lights and then, generally cajled Phoebus, Q. Who was Mercury? A, Mercury J the son o^ ^w^\\jet ^w^'^'si^a.^'^^ Ae gQd of eloquence atiA c.omxaet^5fc>^^\a^xw^ MYTHOLOGY. 144 of thieves, and the messenger of the gods. He conducted souls to their proper place, after their parting from the hody. Q. How is he represented ? A. Mercury is represented as a youth of ex- treme lightness and agility; but the most re- markable of his distinguishing attributes are his petasus, or winged cap;. his talaria^ or winged shoes ; and his caduceus, or wand, with wings at the top, and bound by two serpents. Q. What do you say of Bacchus? A. Bacchus was the son of Jupiter and Sem- el^, and was the god of wine: he is represented as a jolly beardless youth, crowned with ivy and vine leaves; a spear wrapped with the same, in one hand, and grapes or a cup, in the other. — He is usually attended by Silenus, and a band of drunken Satyrs, nymphs, &c. and when carried in a chariot, he is drawn by lions and tigers, or by lynxes and panthers. Q. Who was Mars? ' A. Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno; or, as Ovid tells the story, of Juno alone ; who was displeased that Jupiter should have a daughter, (Minerva,) without female aid: being therefore a son of discontent, he was made the god of war and strife. Q. How is he distinguished ? A. Mars is painted with a £erce and sour aspect; terror eveny where in his looks, clothed _ in armour, a helmet on his head, and % &^^«x ycv his hand. When in a chariot, Yie '\s ^t«?nw.\s^ two horses; which are driven by Yv\s %\«X«t, B^V 142 POLITE LEARNING. lona^ the goddess of war, who is represented as a distracted woman. • « Q. What are the distinguishing characters of JunOj the sister and wife of Jupiter I A. Being queen of the gods, and goddess of the air, Juno is represented as beautiful in a high degree, and full of majesty, having a sceptre in her hand, a crown of roses and lilies on her head, and her chariot drawn by peacocks. She , is attended by Irisj her messenger, who, on ac- count of her swiftness, is represented with wings, and as riding on a rainbow. Q. Whence did Minerva proceed ? A, Minerva came forth from the brain of hei father, Jupiter, completely armed; and is the only one of his oiTspring to whom pertain the prerogatives of the supreme riink of divinity. She is the goddess of wisdom and the arts, and the inventress and presideirt of war. Q. How is she represented by the poets and painters ? A. Minerva or Pallas, is distinguished by the dignity of her face, and a sternness, bordering on masculine ; a helmet, with a plumed crest, on her head ; a spear in her right hand, and in the other, a shield, with the head of Medusa upon jt: the same figure appears also on her breast- plate: she is generally accompanied by a cock and an owl ; ai^emblems of fighting and wisdom* Q. Who was Venus? A. Venus was the most beautiful of all the goddesses: she "sp^unc ironv VVvfe ^tQl\\ of the sea, *vas educated by the rLoxxTs, «ii^ ^l\«t^%x^%«jx- MYTHOLOOY. I4l tied by them into beaten; where^ the gods found her so extremdy handsome, that they were de* sirous of marrying her, and named her the god- dess of love ; but at last she was married to Vulcan, the ugliest and most deformed of all the gods« • Q. In what manner is Venus described } A. The poets^ painters, and statuaries, repre- sent Venus in a variety of alluring forms; with her hair waving over her naked shoulders, or negli-^ gently tied behind, in golden tresses: with a mantle, exhibiting all the colours of the rainbow, and glittering with diamonds; sometimes flow- ing loosely, and at other times, bound with a girdle, called cestua^ Venus is accompanied by Cupid and the Gra* ces, and followed by the beautiful Adonis; who holds up her train. — When riding in her chariot, (which is of ivory, carved and guilty) she is drawn by swans, doves, ot swallows< Q. How, is Cupid represented? A. Ciipid) the god of love, appeal^ as a naked boy, with wings, and bearing a quiver, bow, and darts; or a torch: though he is the youngest of all . the • gods, yet his power is deemed the strongest Q. Who are the Graces? A. The Graces are three sisters; named Ag- laia, Thalia, and Euphrosyn^: .Ihey are repre« sented .naked, very beautiful, . and with uieir \mkds connecitedi 144 POLITE LEARNING. OF THE TERRESTRIAL DEITIES. Q. Who are the Teirestrial Deities ? A. The most celebrated Terrestrial Deities are, Saturny Vulcan, ^oltis, andMomos; Vesta, Cybeli, Ceres and the Muses: there ^re also others of note; which reside in the woods, aftd are properly called godis of the woods. Q. Who is Saturn? A. Saturn, the father of the gods, was the son of Uranus and Vesta, or Coelum and Terra: his brothers were Titan, Oceanus, and ma^y others; his sisters were Ceres and CyfaelS (oth- erwise Ops, or Rhea,) whom he afterwards mar- ried. Being dethroned by his son, Jupiter, he took refuge in Italy; where he civilized the people, and introduced several parts of agricul- ture. Q* How is he represented ? A. Saturn is represented under the figure of a decrepit old man, with a long beard, and hoary head ; bearing in one hand a pruning hook, or scythe, and in the other a child, which he is about to devour. Sometimes, he is furnished with wings and an hour-glass : Saturn and time being the same, he is thus represented, to denote the swiftness of time, and that it destroys all things. Q. What do you say of Vulcan? A. Vulcan was the son of Jupiter and Juno, and the husband of Venus ; as mentioned befonfe On account of his deformity, Vv^'w^ ^"s^av^wra £vm heaven, fell on lYie V&WA \iOTMv'Q«i, %s^ MYTHOLOGY. 145 broke his lee: there, he set up the trade of a smith, manuractured Jupiter's thunder, and the arms of the other gods; and taught the manifold Uses of fire and iron. Vulcan is represent- ed lame and deformed, blackened and hard- ened from the forge, and with a face red and fiery: sometimes, he is attended by the Cyclops, his servants and workmen ; who have only one eye, which is placed in the middle of their foreheads. Q. What i^ the province of JEolits? A. jSoIus is god of the winds: he is painted with swoln cheeks, like one who endeavours to blow a blast forcibly; also with wings on his shoulders, and with a high-coloured, fiery coun- tenance. Q, Who is Momus? A. Momus is the god of folly; his name sig- nifies a jester, mocker, or mimic ; and that is l\}^s employment ; for, when he finds the gods doing amiss, or neglectmg their duty, he censures, mocks, and derides them, with great freedom. He is represented with a mask, and a grotesque face. Q. Who was Festa ? A. Vesta, or Terra^ the wife of Coelum, and mother of Saturn, is the oldest of the goddesses; . and represented as siting, and with a drum; be- cause the, earth is immoveable, and contains the boisterous winds in its bosom. 'There was another Vesta, the daughter of Sii^rn> a virgin goddess: the is Ite t)»sss& ^^^^ Ignis, or 6re. N 146 POLITE LEARKma. Q. Who is Cybelh; and how is she repre- sented ? A. Cybelfe is the wife of Saturn, and mother of all the gods; and, being goddess of all things which the earth sustains, she is represented as seated in a ch^iot drawn hy lions, having gar- ments of various colours, and figured with the images of divers creatures: she holds a key in her hand, and wears a crown of turrets on her head. Q. What is the office of her sister, Ceres? A. Ceres is the goddess of corn and tillage; • and is represented as tall and majestic, with yellow hair; on her head, a turban composed of ears of corn; in one hand, poppies and corn ears, and in the other, a lighted torch. Q. Who are the Muses? A. The Muses are nine beautiful virgins, the daughters of Jupiter and the nymph Mnemo- syne, or Memory: they are mistresses of the sciences, and governesses of the festivals of the gods. Their habitation was mount Parnassus. Q. What are their names, and the sciences over which they preside ? A. Calliope is the goddess of rhetoric; Clioy of history^ Erato, o( poetry; Thalia y of com- edy; MelpoTnen^y of tragedy ; TerpsichorCy of dance; ^uterply of musi^; Polyhyrnniay of song; and Uraniay of astronomy. Q. Please to describe the gods of the woods. A. The principal of the gods of the woods, and the manner in wYiicVv Vhe^ ^^T^^tesented, are as follow: MYTHOLOGY 147 1. Pan^ the god of shepherds and hunters, has a smiling ruddy face, a long beard, and two horns on his head: his skin is spotted, his thighs and legs covered with long hair, and he has the tail and feet of a goat; in one hand, he holds a crooked staff, and, in the other, a pipe of uneven reeds. 2. The Satyrs and Fauns are attendants on Pan; they are horned, and have the tail and legs of a goat. 3. SyivantiSy who presides over the woods, is 3in old man, of little ,stature, with the tail and feet of a goat; holding a branch of cypress in his hand. 4. SilenuSy so called from a jocular temper, was the tutor of Bacchus, and his perpetual compan- ion: he is represented as an old man, with a bald bead, flat nose, large ears, a tail, and cloven feet 5. Diana, the goddess of the woods, was twin dster to Apollo ; and, as he is sometimes called Sol, the Sun, she is often called Luna, or the IVloon. Diana's delight is in hunting: accordingly, she s described as- running, with a short vest, girded ibout her; yet flying back with the wind. She s tall ; her face very handsome, yet somewhat nanly; her attributes are, a javelin, or a bow, juiver and arrows. ' 6. Flora, the goddess of flojvers, is represented IS young and graceful ; holding in her right hand^ he blossom of beans and peas, widL^^orcTi^^^'SJ^ ^ various flowers. 7. Fomonuy the goddess of imv\.,\* ^^ «a^AS^^ 148 POLITE LEARNING. nymph. Her attributes are, a basket of fruit, a number of apples in her left hand, and^ in her right, a nosegay of flowers. 8. The i^mjoA^ are young and beautiful virgins who attend on superior, celestial, terrestrial, and marine deities. Those of the air, are called Aurx; of the woods, Dryades; of the moun- tains, Oreades; of the sea. Nereides; and of the riv&rs, or fountains, Naiades. OF THE MARINE DEITIES. ' Q. How is Neptune^ the god of the sea, de- scribed ? A. Neptune is commonly represented stand- ing, majestic and serene, with a trident in his right hancl, a dolphin on his left, and treading on the back of a ship. When passing over the calm surface of the waters, he is in his chariot, — a large escallop-shell, drawn by sea-horses or dolphins, — and accompanied by his queen with numerous attendants. Q. Whom did he marry ? A. Neptune married %Amphitrttiy the daugh- ter of Nereus and Doris, parents of the Nereides. Q, Who are his attendants ? A. The attendants of Neptune are, Triton, the Sirens, and the Nereides. Q. Who was Tritouy and how is he* repre- sented ? A. Triton was the son of Neptune and Am* phitrit^, and trumpeter \jo \vv^ ^^>i)cvfe\. '^^^\%\«r preBet^ted as half man audYiAi ^^\i^\fc\xiv\\w>&^\ MYTHOLOGY. 149 in a dolphin's tail, and bearing in one hand a wreathed sea shell, which serves him for a trumpet, with which to convene the water deities, when Ntptune wants their assistance or counsel. Q. Please to describe the Sirens? A. The Sirens are supposed to have been the three daughters of Achelous and Melphomene, and are called Parthenc;;!^, Lygea, and Leucosia. The ancients describe the Syrens with the faces of women, and the bodies of birtls ; but the mod- erns represent them as beautiful virgins, from the head to the middle ; and downward, as fish, covered with scales. They are said to reside on rocks where vessels are in danger of splitting; and, alluring passengers by the sweetness of their melody, they put them to death. The Tritons and Sirens are sometimes called mermen and Tneirmaids, ^ Q. How ay'e the Nereides represfented ? A. The Nereides are sea nymphs which com- pose the train of Amphitritfe, and much resemble the modern Sirens, in their figure. Q. What of the Naiades? A. The Naiades are represented as the Sirens, half women and half fish ; residing as so many domestics, in the palaces of the water gods: where they are said to work, tell stories, and wait at table. OF THE INFERNALi Ii^\Y\S.%- Q. In what manner is Pluto^ %o^ oS. "^"^^^"^ ml regions, described by tJ\e ipoeXa ^^^ ^^aaaNs^ 150 rt)LIT£ LEARNING. A. Pluto is represented as extremely black and ugly ; with a key or a sceptre o£ two points in his hand^ and a crown of ebony on his head.^ When riding in his chariot, he is drawn by black horses. Q. Who was Proserpine? A. Proserpine was the daughter of Jupo and Ceres; stolen by Pluto out of Sicily, and carried to his subterranean dominion: where, she be- came the partner of his empire. Q. How is Pluto attended ? ' A. Pluto is attended by the Fates, the Furies, and the Judges; by Harpies, Gorgons, and other monsters; also by Charon, ana the dog Cerberus. Q. What are the jPa/e* .? A. The Fates are three sisters; represented elderly, and clothed in white, bordered with ' purple : theiv names are, Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos. To them, is intrusted, the man^^- ment of the fatal thread of life: Clotho draws the thread, Lachesis turns the wheel, and Atro- pos duts the thread when spun. Qp Please to describe the Furies? A. The principal of the Furies are three sisters; called Alecto, Tisiphon^, and Megaera: they are represented old and meagre, with pale cheeks, inflamed eyes, snakes on their heads, instead of hair,* and whips or burning torches in their hands. Their office is to punish wicked * This ugly imniortal, finding no'wawia.n vacUned yolun- ^^niy, to abare hi throne^ bad xeconi^ft \o «*.Tal^««v\ vsi^ rfoiently carried away ProserpVne, toa^l«t ^i C«w^^ m^iAtamnffing lierself in gathenn^ fLorwon. . CHRONOLOGY- 161 « men for their crimes, and to torment the eon* sciences of secret offenders. Q. Who are the Judges? A. The Judges are Minos, Rhadamanthus, and ^acus; sons of Jupiter. Minos holds a golden sceptre, and oversees the judgment of die other two; each of whom holds a staff in his hand. When the souls of the dead have passed their tribunal, they are conveyed either to Ely- sium or Tartarus; the former, a pikce abounding in pleasures and delights, for the good; and the latter, a hideous dUngeon, for the wicked. Q. Who are the Harpies? A. The Harpies are rapacious monsters ; with the faces of women, the ears of bears, and the bodies of vultures. They were three sisters; Aello, Ocypete, and Celeno. Q. Describe the Gorgons? A. The Gorgons also were three'sisters ; de- scribed with wings on their shoulders, ser- ^ pents around their heads, and their teeth of a ^odigious size. Their names were Stheno, Eu- Tale,. and Medusa; the latter of whom was nief, and being mortal, was killed by Perseus, ^hey could change into stone those upon whom ley looked. Q. Who was Charon? ' A. Charon was a decrepit old man, with a ^g beard, yet of youthful vigour, but dirty in i^n and attire: his employment was to fett^ |s over the rivers at the entr«iiCfc oS. \tf?\* \ Wh^t were those rivers "i 1, The rivers at the entraiu^ ol ^a^ v<«» ISd POLITE LEARNma. four: Acheron^ whose waters were extremely bitter ; Styx^ by which the gods were wont to sweat* ; Cocytus, flowing out of Styx, with a ho^ rible groaning noise ; and the Phlegethouy swell- ing with waves of fire. — Besides these rivers at the entrance, there was another in Elysium, na- med Lethky from the forgetfulness it caused ; for, those who drank of its waters immediately for- got all past transactions. Q. Is there any thing ren^arkable of the dog Cerberus ? A. The dog Cerberus had three heads, and his body was covered with snakes, instead of hair : he was stationed at the gates of Pluto's p'alace; and is sometimes called ihe porter of hell Q. What other deities are there in the infernal regions ? A. The other deities in the infernal regions, are, old Erebus and his wife Noxy who preside over darkness and night; MorSj who presides over death; and Somnus^ over sleep: the last, by his servant, Morpheus, sends dreams to peo- ple in this world, while sleeping. Plutus, the god of riches, is generally deemed an infernal deity ; as riches come out of the earth, and are the root of all evil. OF THE SUBORDINATE DEITIES. Q. Who are deemed subordinate deities ? A. The subordina.\;e devtie^ w^lVvo^^ ^ods and goddesses who preside ov^r \L\ii^doxw&,^TWYWiR&^ cities, towns, streets, \vouses» ^e. ^w^ Q^«t \sir «f MYl'HOLOGY. 158 fantSy children, young people, and adult persons. Their number is all but infinite| there being al- most as many gods as there are things. OF THE DEMI-GODS. Q. What do you say* of the Demi-Gods? A. The Demi-Gods and Heroes, were those who 'had human bodies, sacred minds, and ce- lestial souls. They were the offspring of a god or goddess, with a mortal. The prmcipal of these were, Hercules, Jason, Theseus, Castor and Pollux, Perseus, ^sculapius, Prometheus, Atlas, Orpheus, Achilles, Ulysses, Orion, Osiris. Q. Who was Hercules ? >• A Hercules was the son of Jupiter by Alc- mena. He was destined by the malignity of Juno, and the fatality of his birth, to dangerous wars and difficult adventures, through the whole course of his life. Q. What are his principal exploits ? A. The principal exploits of Hercules are termed his twelve labours, and are the following: 1. Whilst a child in his cradle, he strangl^ two serpents, which Juno had sent to destroy him. 2. He slew, in the forest of Lerna, a frightful Hydra, with 50, heads; one of which being cut off, another immediately sprung up in its place. 3. He caught and killed, on mount Menalus, an extremely swift hind, with gold^ti Vvat\jw%. A. He overcame Diomedes, \L\ik^ o1 '^Vc^cfcv who fed his horses with the ftesVi i!j\fe^Vr*^> «.#» tS6 P0LIT£ LEABNINa and thereby irendered him invulnerable, all but the heel, by which. she held him. He was slain by Paris, who shot him in the heel, at the siege of Troy. ^ Q. Who was this Paris ? A. Paris was the son of Priam, king of Troy, by Hecuba* Juno, Venus, and Minerva being present at the wedding of Thetis and Peleus,- the goddess Discord, threw into the assembly, a imlden apple, with this inscription: "To the airest" Each of the three claimed the apple; but, at lengllh, referred the decision to Paris, then feeding his flocks upon mount Ida. He gave judgment in favour of Venus. Paris is memorable also for having carried oflF Helena, wife of Menelaus, king of Mycenee; which event occasioned the famous siege of Troy. Q. What is said of Atlas ? A. Atlas, the son of Uranus, was a great ob- server of the stars, and the first who represented the world by a sphere. Q. What is recorded of Ulysses ? A. It is said of Ulysses, that, on his return from the Trojan war to the island of Ithica, of which he was king, the Syrens endeavoured to stop him ; but, that he plight not be allured by th^ir melody, h6 closed his ears and caused him- self to be tied to the mast. Q. What is the story of his wife Penelope? A. Besieged by a numerous train of lovers in her husband^s absence, Penelope delivered herself bjr artifice. Havinc, to sa\A«Sy \3cv^m, ^^wittiised ^ make choice of one oi \)Ev%ia,%% wksiv ^^ raSTORY. 157 piece of tapestry, on which she was at work, should be finished, she took care to unweave, at night, ali that she. had done the preceding day. Q. Who was Orpheus ? A. Orpheus was the son of Jupiter and Cal- liope. He had great skill in music, and took an Unconquerable dislike to female society, after the death of his wife Eurydicfe. Q. What of Orion? — and Osiris ? A. Orion was a mighty hunter, and a cele- brated giant of antiquity: Osiris, called also Apis, and Serapis, was the first who taught the Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines. After his death, they worshipped him in the form of an ox, as a symbol of husbandry. Besides the gods and goddesses belonging to the several classes already mentioned, many pf %.itG virtues and vices had their peculiar deities. HISTORY. Q^What is History ? A. History is a written narrative of past transactions, in regular succession. Q. Is not an acquaintance with History, then, very desirable ? A. A familiar acquaintance with History is a most valuable attainment, and well worthy the at-' tention of all who wish to have their minds en- riched from the treasures of experience. As n«- cessity has proved herself the Tno\Xvet oi Kt^^^- tion; so, experience will always Ao^ «?suctf3rw- lodged the patent of wisdom* O IM POLITE LEARNING. Historyi therefore, being an account of what has occurred in real life, and causing all the transactions which it relates to pass, in review, before the mind of the. reader, gives him, in a sort, the experience of them 5 and yields him the wisdom of age, even in the morning of life. Q. How is History divided ? A. History is divided into ancient and tnodern: fWhich may be subdivided into civil; sacred^ and profane. Q. What is Ancient History? A. Ancient History is an account of all events^ whether recorded by sacred or profane writers, , from the creation of the world to the birth of Christ; or, more generally, to the time of Char- lemagne, in the eighth century. Q. What is Modern History ? A. Modern History is a relation of whatever has occurred either in church or state, from the latter period to the present time. Q. What is to be understood by Civil History? A. Civil History is the history of nations, and has relation to the establishment, civil po- licy, continuance, fall, &c. of empires, kingdonis, states, communities, or cities; and may be either general or particular. Particular History recites a series of facts, forming the history of an indi- vidual state; General History exhibits, at one view, a distinct account of sevet'al states, em- pires, &c. Q. JVhat is Sacred History? A.. Sacred History la IWV ^«iX,>qcA3cv a^^wi4^\»'^^ HISTORY. 159 mysteries and ceremonies of religion^ with the visions, prophecies, miracles, and other suj>er- natural things recorded in the Old and New Testaments, and of which 60D alone is the author. Q. Do we not sometimes hear of Ecclesia^ Heal or Church History? A. Yes; Sacred History, since the destruction of Jerusalem, or about the 70th year after the birth of CHrist, is, very properly, so termed; as it is a narration of transactions, revolutions, aiid events, which particularly relate to the Christian church. Q. What is Profane History ? A. Profane History is, properly, the history of the fabulous gods, demi-gods, and heroes of antiquity, usually termed mythology; but all records of ancient times, the scriptures excepted, are, sometimes, thus denominated. Q. How may Civil History, or the history of nations, be divided, with regard to time? A. Civil History, or the history of nations, may be divided, with regard to time, into three great intervals. 1. Obscure^ or uncertain time; extending from the creation of the world to the deluge. This period embraces 1 656 years, and is called obscure^ because history has left us in great ig- norance with respect to it. 2. Fabulov^f or heroical time; extending from the deluge to the establishment of the Olympic games. It is called fabuloviA^ ox Kerrw.- caX because it is perplei^ed Wftx VJftfc Wi^^^ ^ \. 160 POLITE LEARNING. the gods, demi-gods, and heroes of the Greeks; who are said to have lived during this period. 3. Historical tivie, extending from the es? tablishment of the Olympic games, when history began to be more authentic, down to the present period. Q. How may Sacred History be divided ? A. Sacred History may be divided into three parts: — 1. The dispensation of the law of nature; extending from Adam to Moses. 2^. The dispensation of the written law; extending from Moses to the preaching of the gospel by our Lord Jesus Christ and his apostles. 3. The dispensation of grace; extending from the establishment of the gospel to the pre- sent time. Q. What is the most ^cient History we have? A. The most ancient History is ihak which is contained in tlie Old Testament; giving an ac- count of the creation of the world, the fall of our first parents, the general corruptions of man- kind, and the universal deluge which came upon the earth, in consequence; the preservation of Noah with his family iri the ark, and the re- peopling of the world by his three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth; and of their posterity. Q. What else is recorded in the Scriptures ? A. The Scriptures record the history of the Jews or Hebrews, once the favourite people of Heaven, in the Old Testament; and the history of our Lord Jesus Chnsl, \hft Sou of God, and his disciples, in the New. .■c HISTORY. 161 * Q. Does not Ancient History recognize the existence of certain extensive monarchies or « empires? A. Ancient History recognizes four extensive monarchies or empires; termed universal; be- cause they extended over the greatest part of the then known world. Q. What was the first of these ? A. The first of these was the Assyrian em- pire; founded at Babylon, on the Euphrates, by Ninurod, the crandson of Ham, A. M. 1^00; and continuea by his son Ninus, and after Ni- nus, by his wife Semiramis, and terminated un- der Sardanapalus, having endured 1450 years. Q. What became of the empire after the death of Sardanapalus ? A. After the death of Sardanapalus, the As- syrian empire was divided into three kijigdoms; the kin^om of Media, the kingdom of Assyria, and the kingdom of Babylon. Arbaces, who subdued Sardanapalus, was the first king of the . Median kingdom, and Ecbatana was his capital. Phul was the first king of the Assyrian kingdohi, and his metropolis was Nineveh. Babylon was the metropolis of the Babylonian kingdom. Nebuchadnezzar was the most celebrated of its kings, and Belshazzar the last. Q. What was the second universal monarchy? and by whom founded ? A. The second universal monarchv was the Persian; founded by Cyrus, upon the ruins of the Median and Babylom^u Vvtv^wo.^«» y^ "^ssfc jrear of the world 3468', aiA exAfc^ V5>S^ "^^s^ \%2 POLITE LEARNING. overthrow of Darius, its last kine, by Alexai^der the Great, A. M. 3670, and before Christ 330: having endured sometjhing mor^ than 200 years, j Q. Who was this Cyrus"? A. Cyrus was a prince of extraordinary virtue, wisdom, and courage; and is renowned in Holy Writ, for having effected the restoration of the Israelites from the Babylonish captivity, to Ju- dea, their native land, with permission also to rebuild the tenlple at Jerusalem. Q* What was, the third universal monarchy, and by whom founded ? A. The third univei*sal monarchy was the Grredan; founded 330 years before Christ, by Alexander the Great It lasted, however, no longer than the life of its founder; for, at his death, as there was no proper successor, his gen- erals divided the empire among themselves, forming four distinct kingdoms; the Macedonian, the Asiatic, the Syrian, and the Egyptian. These subsisted under their own kings, until they were subdued by the Romans. ^ Q. Why was Alexander called the Great? A. Alexander was called the Great, not on account of his virtues, . but on account of his natural valour, and the great success of his arms; which, in the short period of 12 years, subjugated all the nations, from the Adriatic sea, (now the gulf of Venice) to the river Ganges in India. Q. What was the character of Alexander ? A. Alexander was of an active, vigorous con- 5//7w/ioi3, possessing strong intellectual powers, ^tn aspiring, inipetuous d\apos\\!votv,%xv^^^^«r^ HISTORY. 16i tenacious of bis opinions. Under the tuition of the celebrated Aristotle^ he made astonishing progress in every branch> of science, to which it was thbught proper to direct his attention ; so that he soon became both a scholar and a phi- losopher. Alexander, in the early parts of life, gave strong evidence of a noble, virtuous, and gener- ous disposition; but, cruelty, ingratitude, and dissipation, disgraced the close of his days, and tarnished all his glory. He died at Babylon, of excessive drinking, in the 32d year of his age, and the 13th of his reign. Q. What was the fourth universal monarchy? A. The fourth universal monarchy was the Roman; founded by Romulus, B. C. 753, and, with some changes, continued, until under Au- gustus Caesar, it became mistress of the whole earth, excepting China, and some other countries, that were either unknown, inhabited by savage nations, or too inconsiderable to attract regard. Q. What changes did the Roman government undergo ? A. The first state of Rome was regaly under s'^ven successive kings: the second yfd& consular^ under a series of consuls, for the space of 470 years; when the triumvirate was formed, by Ju- lius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who divided * the empire amongst th^m. Crassus having lost his life in a foreign expedition, Caesar and Pom- k pey became jealous of each other's power, and a war ensued, in which Oaasar \3MvTftaX^^ '^^~ umphed. He styled himaeli pex^^Vxx^ ficksXa^is^S 164 POLITE LEARNING. and was about to take upon him the imperial dig- nity, when he was assassinated for his usurpa- tion, by a band of Roman citizens, with Bru- tus and Cassius at their head. Q. Did the republic recover its liberty after the death of Caesar? A. No: Mark Antony, a factious, dissolute character, with young Octavius, the nephew of Vulius CaBsar, and Lepidus, who commanded an army in Gaul, formed a second triumvirate; and having the soldiery at command, they cruelly banished, or put to death, all who were either wealthy or virtuous, at Rome: Octavius assumed the name of Augustus CaBsar, and the liberties of the people perished, 27 years before Christ Q. Was this triumvirate of long standing? A. No; Antony, by divorcing Octavia, the sister of Ga&sar, and attaching himself to Cleo- patra, queen of Egypt, drew himself into a war, in which he and Cleopatra both perished ; and Egypt, from that time, became a Roman pro- vince. Augustus, now finding himself supreme governor of the Roman people, assumed the im- perial dignity; and, under the title of emperor Augustus, governed with great wisdom and mod- eration for 44 years. It was in the reign of this prince, when all the world was at peace, that our Saviour, Jesus Christ, the true Prince of Peace, was born, at Bethlehem of Judea. Rome was at this time 50 milQS in circumference, and contained four mil- Hods of inhabitants. HISTORY. 165 Q. How long did this empire continue^ after the birth of Christ ? A. The Roman empire continued four hun- dred and seventy-six years after the birth of Christ, when Augustulus, the last emperor, was defeated by Odoacer, general of the Heruli. From that time, the Roman empire became a prey to the Goths, Lombards, and Franks; by whom, were established various petty govern- ments, in France, Spain, and Italy: some remains of which still exist Q. What effects followed the inroads of these barbarians ? A. The inroads of these barbarians, caused a temporary destruction of the fine arts, and so great an obscuration of the sun of science and literature, as occasioned the long succeeding pe- riod of nearly 1000 years, to be called the dark age. Printing was at length invented, learning re- vived, and greater progress was made in civili- zation than at any other period of history. Q; When, and by whom, was the foundation of the present French empire laid ? A. The foundation of the present French em- pire was founded about the year A. D. 481, by the Francs, a German nation, under Clovis whose posterity sat upon the throne 270 years. The second race' began undei' Pepin, A. D. 751, and was followed by the Capetian race, so called from Hugh Capet, a powerful uoble,v£\as\. ^Vv^ ^^- cended the throne, A. B. 9S1. T\C\"s. 1"OTo\^ ^^ wcceeded by the house o£N^iVo\^\ ^\v^^C5tvfe>^ssos^ s»^ 166 POLITE LEARNING. of Valois, by that of Bourbon. TTie execution of Louis XVI. in 1793, seemed to. have ended this dynasty: France was, thence, governed as a republic, until 1804; when general Napoleon Buonaparte, a native of Corsica, was made em- peror. But Napoleon was finally dethroned in 1815; at which period, Louis the XVIII. , a brother of the unfortunate Bourbon, was, a sec- ond time, placed upon the throne, by the allied enemies of Buonaparte. Q. What races of kings have succeeded to the Spanish crown ? A. Spain has been governed since the expul- sion of the Romans, by five families; the first race from the Goths; the second, from Don Pelago; the third, from Don Sancho, king of Navarre; the fourth, from the house of Austria; and the fifth, from the house of Bourbon. Q. Of what family, is the emperor of Germany? A. The emperor of Germany is a descendant of Rodolph I., count of Hapsburg, and Land- grave of Alsace ; who was the first of his family that obtained the empire. He was elected A. D. 1273. Q. Of what family, is the emperor of Turkey? A. The emperor of Turkey is of the Ottoman family; so called, from the warlike Sultan 0th- man, or Osman, ^ho A. D. 1300, carried his conquests to a prodigious extent. Q. At what period, and by what means, did Portugal 'become a kingdom ? A. Portugal, anc\eut\y e^JXV^^ Yk\i€\\asv\^^ W eame a tingdo|n about iV\^ xivi^i^^ ^IViw^Xw^S^ HISTORY* 167 ^sentuiy. Obunt Henry, receiving some territo- ries bordering upon it, from Alonzo, king of Leon, as a marriage dowry with his daqghter^ expelled the Saracens ; and his son, Alonzb, having conquered Lisbon, assumed the title of king of Portugal, A. D. 1 146. .Philip II. of Spam, seized upon it in 1589$ but, in 1640, the duke of Braganza recovered it; and, in his family it has ever since remained independent of Spain. Q. What was the former situation of Holland, or the United Provinces, now comprised in. the kingdom of the Netherlands ? A. Holland, or the United Provinces, were originally an assemblage of lordships, dependent on Spain; but from which they withdrew, on arcount of the tyranny of the government, in the reign of Philip II. Spain, after a tedious war, acknowledged their independence^in the year 1609. They afterwards established a republican form of government, ^ and made the executive power hereditary in the family of the prince of Orange, with the title of Stadtholder. The French expelled this prince in 1795, erect- ed it into a monarchy, under Lewis Buonaparte, 1806, and incorporated it with their empire, 18] 0. After the defeat of Napoleon, at Leipsic, in 1818, the Stadtholder resumed the govern- ment, and now reigns there, as king of the Nelii- eriands. Q. What are the present Awmoxis ol Ws^*^ A. Italy is now divided itilo KxsfiXxvjyxv^^s^^ ^"^"^ ^ 108 POLITE LEARNING. kingdom of Sardinia, the Dutchi^s of Ptona^ Modena, Lucca, and Tuscany; the. Pope's Terri- tories, and the Two Sicilies^ Q. Give me a short account of England ? A. Before the Romans landed in England, the Britons, who then possessed the country, were divided into several nations; each governed by its own king. When Britain became a member of the Roman empire, many of their tribes had their own kings, who were suffered to govern, as tributary sovereigns, by their own laws. After the Romans had quitted Britain; upon the irruption of the Goths into Italy, in the fifth century, the supreme^ government returned to the Britons; who chose for their king, Constan- tino, a prince of British blood ; td whom, suc- ceeded Constantino, his son ; then Vortigern, who first called in the Saxons, at that time hovering along the coast of Britain. The Saxons, Having ^ot footing in the island, either enslaved or extirpated those whom they came to assist Thus, the Britons left the stage, and the Sax- ons entered. By these, the country was divided into seven kingdoms, called the Saxon Heptar- chy; which continued for several ages, till the prevailing fortune of the West Saxons united them all into one, by the name of England. Q. How many kings of the Saxon line suc- ceeded to the crown of England ? A. Fifteen kings of the Sa^xon line succeeded to the English crown, nameV^ — v Egbeut, 17th kVngoi lYve'S^e'sX.^^^'Qroi^^^B.^ \ HISTORY. 169 19th monaith of Britain, was crowned at Win- chester, in the year 819, first king of England; he died in 836 ; and was succeeded by his son: Ethelwolf, died 857, and was succeeded by his son, — Ethels ALD, died 860, and was succeeded by his brother, — Ethelbert, died 866, and was succeeded by his brother, — Ethelred I. who received a wound in battle, of which he died in 872, and was succeeded by his brother, — Alfred, died 901, and was succeeded by his son, — Edward, the elder, died 924, and was suc- ceeded by his son, — Athelstan, died 940, and was succeeded by his brotfier, — Edmund I. who received a wound, when en- deavouring to part two of his servants; of which, he bled to death, 948, and was succeeded by his brother, — Edred, died 955, and was succeeded by his nephew,-^ Edwy, eldest son of Edmund I. died of grief, in 959, and was succeeded by his brother, — Edgar, died 975, and was succeeded by his eldest >son, — Edward, the martyr, who being stabbed by order of his mother-in-law, 979, was succeeded by his half-brother, — Ethelred II. died 10\^^ wx^ ^^^ ^^^^^"^^^^ by his son, — P 170 f OLITB L£A|tNtNO. £dmukd II. murdered 1017, and was succeed* ed by a Dane. ' Q. How many kings of the Danish line sue-^ ceeded? A. Three kings of the Danish line succeeded^ namely — CANTTTfiy the Dane, descended from the daugh* ter of Edward the elder^ died 1036, and was succeeded by his son, — Harold I. died 1039, and was succeeded hy his brother, — HARDicAXitTE, who died 1041, and was sue* ceeded by Edward, the Confessor, son of Ethelred IL (of the Saxon line) who died Jan. 1066, and was succeeded by Harold II. son of the earl of Kent, slain in battle October 14, 1066; and was succeeded by William the Conqueror. Q. Name the Recession of English monarchs, from William the Conqueror, down to the pre- serit time. A. The succession of English monarchs, from William the Conqueror, down to the present time, are the following: 1st. Four Norman kings ; WilHani of Nor- mandy; Witliam tlnfus; Henry 1. and Ste- phen, 2d. Fourteen kings of the family of I*lanta- genet — Henry It. Richard I. John; Henry III. 1^ wardh HdwardM^ £dii)ardlll« Richard 11* HISTORY. 171 Henry IV. Henry V. Henry VI, Edward IV. Edward V. Richard III. 3d. Five of the house of Tudor — Henry VII. Henry VIII. Edward VI. Mary^ and Elizabeth, 4th. Six, of the house of Stuart — •/amc* I. Charles I. Charles II, James IL Mary II. , queen of William III.; Jlnnt, 5th. One king of the house of Nassau — WiU Hani III. 6. Four kings of the Brunswick line — which succeeded upon the death of Anne — George I., George II., George III., George IV. Q. Please to repeat these a little more in de- tail ? A. William I., duke of Normandy, was a descendant from Canute; he made a claim to the crown of England, and landed iii Sussex, in Sep- tember, 1066; defeated the English troops at Hastings, October, following, when Harold was ^ slain, and William assumed the title of Conqueror, He was crowned at Westminster, in December, 1066; wounded, by his son Robert, in Norman- dy, 1077: his queen, Matilda, was a descendant from Alfred, and died in Normandy. William died at Hermentrude, in Normandy, September, 1087; was buried at Caen, and succeeded, in Normandy, by his eldest son, Robert; and in England, by his second surviving son, William II., who was crowned September 27, 1087 — invaded Normandy VVCcv '^wR.^^'sa. — was kiiJed hy accident as \\e vj^&\v\x^>C\^'5^^^^^^1 Forest, by Sir Walter TytreV, k.M«?s^- %\v VC^^ 17» POLITE LEARNING. He was buried at Winchester, and succeeded by his brother, . Henry L, who was crowned August, 1100; married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm, king of Scots, November, following— defeated his brother Robert, in Normandy, 1 107, and sent him prison- er to England — his eldest son was shipwrecked and lost m coming from Normandy, 1120 — sur- . feited himself with eating lampreys at Lyons,' in Normandy, and died m Deceniber, 1135— was buried at Reading, and succeeded by his nephew, Stephen, though, by will, he left his do- minions to his daughter Matilda. Stephen, was crowned in December, 1135; taken prisoner at Lincoln, by the earl of Glouces- ter, in 1141, but was afterwards released for the earl of Gloucester, who was taken at Winches- ter. Stephen died at Dover, October, 1154; was buried at Feversham, and succeeded by — Henry H., grandson of Henry I.; who, with his qufeen Eleanor, was crowned December, 1154; invaded Ireland, and conquered it, 1172: imprisoned his queen, on account of Rosamond, his concubine, 1173; did penance at Becket's tomb, 1174; took the king of Scotland prisoner, 1175; and had an amour with Alice of France, the intended princess of his son Richard, 1181. He died of grief, in Normandy, and was burieJ at Fonteveraud, in France, and was succeeded by his son, Richard L, who was crowned September, 1189; conquered ttve isVand ol C^ji^xms^ and there married BerengeTai, daxi^Xet ^l ^^\aa% fflSTORY. 175 of Navarre; was arrested, near Vienna, by the duke of Austria, December, 1192; ransomed for 40,000/. and returned to England, March, 1193 — wounded with an arrow at Chalus, in Norman- dy, died, and was buried. at Fonteveraud, and succeeded by his brother, John. John was crowned in May, 1199 — divorced his wife, Avisa, and married Isabelle, daughter ^of the count of Angoselme — ^took his nephew, Arthur, prisoner, whom he murdered — ^impris- oned his queen, and banished all the clergy — was himself excommunicated, 1209 — ^surrender- ed his crown to Pandolf, the Pope's legate, in May, 1213 — absolved, in July following — oblig- ed, by the barons, to confirm Magna Charta, m 1215 — died, 1216 — ^was Juried at Wdrcester,. and succeeded by his son, Henry III. was crowned in Gloucester, Oc- tober, 1216 — and at Westminster, 1219 — ^marri- ed Eleanor, daughter of the count of Provence, < 1236— pledged his crown, plate, and jewels, for money, 1248 — obliged, by his nobles, to resign the power of a sovereign, and sell Normandy and Anjou to the French, 1258 — taken prisoner at Lewes, in May, 1264 — wounded at the battle of Evesham, August, 1265 — died, 1272 — and was interred at Westminster, and succeeded by his son, Edward I. — married Eleanor, princess of ^astile — ^was wounded in the Holy Larvd^Vs^ '^ poisoned dagger, but recovex^^ \i^ \vv3> ^xxxsr.^^^ sucking out the venom, 121 \ — ^to^^vkv^^^^ oa the death of his father, iti \5i1^— \^^^^^^^^ 174 POLITE LEARNING. gland m July, and crowned in August, 1274-^ reduced the Welch princes, 1 282-— conquered Scotland, 1296; and brought to Westminster, their coronation chair, &c. — married Margaret sister to the king of France, 1299— died in 1307 — was buried at Westminster, and succeeded by his son, Edward II. — ^was created Prince of Wales, 1300, and was the first king of England's soi^ that iiad that title — married Isabel, daughter of the king of France, January, 1308— crowned February, following — obliged by the barons to invest the government of the kingdom in 21 persons, March, 131-0— declared his queen and all her adherents enemies to the kingdom, 1325 — was dethroned, January, 1327, and succeeded by his son, Edward III. — was murdered at Berkley-castle, September following, and buried at Gloucester. Edward III. — married Philippa, daughter of the earl of Hainault — accepted the crown on his father's forced resignation, and was crowned January, 1327— claimed the crown of France — confined his mother Isabella, and caused her fa- vourite, Mortimer, to be hanged— defeated the Scots at Hallidown, July, 1 333 — invaded France, and assumed the insignia, 1339 — defeated thb French, at Cressy, August, 1346, »r5^\AS*^^ 176 POLITE LEARNING. He was buried at Langley, but removed by Henry V. to Westminster. Henry IV., duke of Lancaster, erandson of Edward III. born 1367 — married Mary, daugh- ter of the earl of Hertford, who died 1394 — fought with the duke of Norfolk, 1397, and was banished— returned to England, in arms, against Richard II. and deposed him, September, 1399 — crowned October following, when he institut- ed the order of the Bath — married Joan of Na- varre, widow of the duke of Bretagne, 1403 — died of an apoplexy, in March, 1413 — was buri- ed at Canterbury, and succeeded by his son, Henry V. who defeated the Welch in two bat- tles, 1405 — ^was crowned in April, 1413— claim- ed the crown of France, 1414 — gained the vic- tory of Agincourt, October, 1415 — pledged his regalia for money to push his conquests, 1416— declared regent, and married Catharine of France, 1420 — died at Rouen, August, 1422 — was buried at Westminster, and succeeded by his only son, Henry VI. who was proclaimed king of France, 1422^-and crowned at Westminster, November, 1420 — crowned at Paris, December, 1430 — married Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou, 1445 — ordered Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, his uncle, to be strangled, 1447 — was taken prisoner at Northampton, July, 1460 —deposed, March, 1461, by his fourth cousin, Edward IV. — restored to his throne, 1470— taken prisoner again, A.Tpt\l, 1471 — his queen and son taken prisoners, a\.TewV^^\a>3>3^^- trapd, in May, of the same; ^^at, m^ Vv& -^^ HISTORY. 177 killed in cold blood — ^he was murdered in the Tower, June, following, and buried at Chertsey abbey, but removed to Windsor. Edward IV. descended from the third son of Edward III. was elected king, in March, and crowned in June, 1461 — ^sent the earl of War- wick to demand the sister of the queen of France, and in the meantime married Elizabeth, the widow of sir John Gray, 1461 — was taken pri- soner by the earl of Warwick, in Yorkshire, and expelled the kingdom, 1470 — ^returned, and gained a great victory at Barnet, April, 1471 — caused the duke of Clarence, his brother, who had joined the earl of Warwick, to be drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine, 1478 — he died of an ague, April, 1483 — was buried at Windsor, and succeeded by his son, Edwabd V. who was conveyed to the Tower, May, 1483 — deposed June following, and, with the duke of York, his brother, supposed to be nurdered in the Tower, soon after-^he was sue- ' teeded by his unc^e, ' Richard III. duke of Gloucester, brother to 'dward IV. who was made protector of England, May, elected king, in June, and crowned in ly, 1483 — slain in battle, at Bosworth field, tgust, 1485 — ^was buried at Leicester, and suo- ded by Jenry VII, (see John of Gaunt)— defeated Hard III. and was crowned October, 1485 — fied Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV ^ VAS.^ i eldest son, Arthur, died \5^^— >kv% ^^^^ 4<503~married his dau^Vet lAas«?»\. ^s> 178 POLITE LEARNING. Junes rV of, Scotland, 1504 — ^from whom, James I. of Bngland descended— died of a con- sumption, at Richmond, in April, 1509 — was buried at Westminster, and succeeded by his son, H£NRY VIII. who married Catharine, infanta of Spain, widow of his brother Arthur, 1509 — and was crowned in June following — received the title of the Defender of the Faith, 1521 — styled head of the Church, 1531 — ^married Ann Bo- ley ne privately, November, 1532 — divorced Catharine, May, 1533 — exicommunicated by pope Paul, August, 1535 — Catharine, his first queen, died January, 1536 — ^beheaded Ann, his second queen, in May, and married Jane Sey- mour, who died in childbed, October, 1537— suppressed the religious foundations in England and Wales, 153^ — married Ann of Cleves, in January, divorced her, in July, and married Cathariae Howard, August, 1540 — beheaded her and lady Kochford, February, 1542-f~married Catharine Pu^, his sixth wife, July, 1543 — di^ of a fever, January, 1547 — ^was buried at Wind- sor^ and succeeded by his son, E^wAito VL who was crowned February, 1547 — fell siek of the small-pox and measles, 155^^^ied of a consumption at Greenwich, Ju- Iv^ 1533 — ^was buried at Westminster, and suc- <>d<$de4,. afl:reeaUy to his will, by his cousin, I Jax« C^jfeAY, who was proclaimed July, 1535 — ^>p«ie^ aud sent to the tower, July following — 6<^h<«^tk^^ with lord Dudley her husband, Fein HISTORY. ITft prodaimed in July, and crowned in October, 1553 — ^married Philip of Spain, 1554— 'died of a dropsy, November, 1558— -was buried at West- minster, and succeeded by her half sister, Elizabeth, who was crowned January, 155d , — imprisoned Mary queen of Scots, who had fled ta England for protection, 1568— solicited in marriage by the duke of Anjou, 1571 — till he was finally rejected, 1581 — beheaded Mary of Scots, Februaiy, 1587 — defeated the Spanish ar- mada, 1588 — ^beheaded the earl of Esse^t, her fa- vourite, February, 1601 — died at Richmond, March, 1603— was buried at Westminster, and succeeded by Jam£s I. (see Henry Vll. ) — Crowned James VL of Scotland, 1567— ^married Ann, princess of Denmark, 1589 — ^proclaimed king of En- gland, in March, and crowned in July;, 1603 — ^first styled king of Great Britain, 1604 — ^married his daughter, Elizabeth, to Frederick prince*palatine of the Rhine, 1612 — from whom George I. de- ^ scended; lost his queen, March, 1619-Mlied of an ague, at Theobalds, March, 1625-^was buried at Westminster, and succeeded by his son, Charles 1. who married Henrietta of France, May^ 1625^-*-was crowned February, 1626 — went to the house of Commons and demanded fivtB members, January, 1642— -raised his stand- ard at Nottingham, August following; gave him- self into the hands of the Scots at Newark, May, 1636— «old by the 'Scots for 200,000^^ ^»sgi.^ following; escaped from liaxiv^\.oxi-^ov«\.^ ^^"S ^ 7^45— confined in Wiudaox e^'aXXfe^i ^^^^sai5s>»sc^ 180 POLITE LEARNING. following; remdved to St James', January^ 1649 — ^was brought to trial the next day, con- demned the 27tli, beheaded at Whitehall the, 30th, and buried at '^indsor. Oliver Cromwell was made protector, Decem- ber, 1653 — elected king, but refused the title, May, 1657 — died at Whitehall, September, 165S. Richard Cromwell was proclaimed protector, Septefnber, 1658 — deposed April, 1659— died at Chesnut in Hertfordshire, July, 1712. Charles II. son of Charles I. — escaped into Holland, 1648 — landed in Scotland, 1650— crowned at Scone, January, 1651-^r^stored to , his throne, May, 1660 — crowned in London, April, 1661 — ^married Catharine infanta of Por- tugal, May, 1662 — died of an apoplexy, Febru- ary, 1685 — was buried at Westminster, and suc- ceeded by his brother, James II. who married Ann Hyde, 1660 — who died 1671 — married the princess of Modena, 1673 — crowned April, 1685 — ^fled from his pa- lace, and left England, in December, 1688— landed at Kinsale, in Ireland, March, 1689— ^ returned to France, July, 1690---died at St Ger- main's, August, 1701. [James, duke of Monmouth, natural son of Charles II. landed in England, and was pro- claimed king at Taunton, June, 1685 — was de- feated near Bridgewater,and beheaded on Tower- hill, in July, following. , Mary II. (daughter of James II.) was ma^ ried to Wjfi,x.iAM III. prince oi OTMi%^,Ns\v^\«sA^\a. England with an army, Norember, 1688— p«K claimed king, and his princess queen, of En« gland, in February, and crowned in April, 1689-— landed at Carrickfergus, June, and defeated James II. at the Boyne, July, 1690— lost his queen, December, 1694— fell from his horse, and broke his collar-bone, February 1702 — died At Kensington, March following; was buried at Westminster, and succeeded by his sister-in-law. * Anne, second daughter of James II. was mar* ri'^d to prince George of Denmark, July, 1683 ' — crowned April, 1702— lost her son George by a fever, July, 1703 — settled her revenue of the first-fruits and tenths on the poorer clergy, 1704 — assented to the act of union with Scotland, March, 1707*— lost her husband, October, 1708 —died of an apoplexy, August, 1714 — was buri- ed at Westminster, and succeeded by, George I. elector of Hanover, (see James I.] — ^married Sophid, daughter of the duke of Brunswick-Zeil, 1688 — created duke of Cam- ' bridge,* October, 1706— proclaimed in August, # and landed at Greenwich, in September, and was crowned, in October, 1714— his queen died in Germany, November, 1726 — ^he died of a para- lytic disorder at Osnabiirg, June, 1727 — ^was buried at Hanover, and succeeded by his son, George II.— married the princess Wilhelmi- fla Caroline Dorothea of Brandenbarg-Anspach, 1704 — crowned Olctober, 1727 — ^married his son, Frederick, to Augusta, princ^^as c^^ %«3w^-^^:}5jc«a.^ April, 1 736— lost his queeiv, ^o^'erofefc^ '>'^^'^'^~ defeated the French at lieXXVti^exv^^vssv^'^ V\A»^ ISi POLITE LEARNING. lost his son Frederick, March, 1751 — died snd denly at Kensington, October, 1760 — was buried at Westminster, and succeeded by his grandson. Geobge III. who was proclaimed in October, 1760 — ^married Charlotte Sophia, princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, September, 1 76 1 — and both crowned September following— -died, and was succeeded by hisi son, GxoBGE iy«y who was proclaimed king, Jan uary 31, 1821, and now reigns^ PHYSIC. Q. What is Physic ? A. Physic, or Medicine, is the knowledge of those things, by the application of which, the body .is either preserved in a healthy state, or re- stored thereto when disordered. Q. How is the word Physic derived ? A. The word Physic is derived from a Greek word Iphims'} signifying nature; because med- I icine consists, principally, in the observation of nature. ' Q. What are the principal branches of this science ? A. The principal branches of Physic are. An- atomy, Surgery, Pharmacy, Chemistry, and Bot- any, Q. What is Anatomy i A. Anatomy is the art of dissecting the solid parts of the human body; in order to discover tbeir structure ^nd economy, ^«« ^^^^ ^aA* ttwCf ^md their concern m YwaSiflci w \xl ^\^«Mfc. PHYSIC. IM It is of use, not only in medicinCy but lUso in statuary and painting. Q. What is Surgery ? A. Surgery is a branch of the healing art^and consists in manual operations, by the aid of suit- able instruments, for the cure of wounds, dislo- cations, fractures, tumours, ulcers, and the like. It has the advantage of medicine, in the solidity of its foundation, the certainty of its operations, and the sensibility of its effects. Q. What is Pharmacy ? * A.' Pkarmaey teaches the choice, prepare* tion, and mixture of medicines; and consists in the knowledge and management of the sev- eral parts of the materia medica, now in the hands of the apothecaries. Q. What is Chemistry ? A. Chemistry is the art of separating the several substances of which mixed bodies are composed, and of composing other bodies by the niixture of different ingredients: or, Chemistry is the art of analizing natural bodies, or reducing them to their first principles, and thereby discovering their hidden virtues; with a view to philosophy, physic, and domestic uses. Q. Is not Chemistry, then, a very useful and extensive science ,? ' A. Yes; all bodies contained in the vegetable, animal, and mineral kingdoms, come under the notice of Chemistry; and decoctions, infusions, exhalations, calcinations, distillatiow^^ ^x^^N^!^- zations, elixirs, tinctures, Sui. w^ ^^ \»a^^^:^ ^ its operations. ^.'^^ 1S4 POLITE LEARNING. Q. What is Botany ? A. Botany is that science which treats of plants, with their varieties, forms, virtues, and uses in medicine, and other affairs of life. ^ The grand divisions of the vegetable family, are the herbaceous, the shi*ubby, and the arbor- escent, or tree. But the great naturalist, LinnsBus, in his class- ification founded on the sexual system, extends the divisions of vegetables into 24. All the varieties of grain, wood, hemp, flax, cotton, sugar-cane, tea, coffee, spices, &c. come under the notice of this science, which is one of the most pleasing that can occupy the human mind. Q. You mentioned the vegetable, animal, and mineral kingdoms: what are they? A. Naturalists, in drder to give some arrange- ment to the numerous objects claiming their at- tention, have divided the productions of this ^ globe into three great classes, which they de- nominate the three kingdoms of nature: 1. The vegetable kingdom; as above men- tioned, and comprehending whatever vegetates, or grows out of the earth; having root, stem, or leaf, flower, fruit, or seed. 2. The animal kingdom: embracing all b^ ganized beings; possessing life, sensation, and the power of motion. And, 3. The mineral kingdom: .comprehending alh bodies destitute of animal or vegetable life; tyhich are thus elasaed. \.l£i»x^3^^ ^wd stones CHEMISTRY. U& , 9. whs; 3. inflammables; and 4. metallic sab- '' stances or ores. This last branch of Natural Hi»» tory is called Mineralogy. [See folio 40.] CHEMISTRY. Q. What is Chemistry ? A. Chemistry is that science which teaches us how to ascertain the nature and properties of bodies. Q. By what means, may the nature and prop- erties of bodies be ascertained ? A. The nature and properties of bodieis may l^e ascertained by analysis^ or decomposition, and synthesis^ or composition. Q. How many kinds of bodies are there? A. There are only two kinds of bodifss-— simple or elementary, and compound. A stm- pie or elementary bodyy is one that consists of only one kind of substance; and is therefore in- capable of decomposition; as caloric, gold, car- bony &c. A compound body is such as consists of more than one simple, or elementary body $ as air, water, &c. Q. How many simple bodies do modem chemists enumerate ? A. Modern chepiists enumerate nearly fifty simple bodies; a few of which are the following: light y caloric, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus; (two alkalies^ \ potash and soda; (nine earthft,^ U'mft^*ma|gf«^^'» sirontites, barytes, nlex,&.<^ ^ot^olVj-^w^ ^w*^ 186 POLITE liEARNING, al%) gbldy platina^ silver, mereurj/, ettpptf^ iron, tifij kad, nicJehj zinc^ &e. Q. What is understood by the term Affinity, among Cheqiists ? A. •Affinity is that particular tendency which the constituent parts of bodies have to blend or unite with each oth^r. When this tendency ex- ists between bomes of the same nature, it is called the affinity or attraction of a^gr^ation; when between bodies of different natures^ it is denominated the affinity of cotnpoaitiofif or chemical affinity. Note. As the affinity y or attraction of ag- gregation, unites particles of similar natures, without changing their original properties^ the result qf such a union, must be a body of the fiame kind as the particles of which it is com- posed: but^ the compound formed by the ehenii- cal union of dissimilar particles, will possess properties totally different from those of its con- stituent principles. Sulphuric acid and sodOf for instance, though two powerfully corrosive substances, form, when united, the mild and eooling glauher salts* Q. Is not chomical affinity stronger between aome substances than others ? A. Chemical affinity is much stronger between some substances than others. For instance, salt and water being put together, will unite, because they have an affinity for each other; but, if a t/rird Aujiistance be added^ aia alcohol, (spirits of wine) for which the -water \i%s^t!toKix\^«c ^\v>te\ than for salt, it will qmt tiwfc aa^Ll ^YCv^ v\.>m^^ CHEMISTRY. Wt in sokitioB, and unite with the alcohol; leaving , the a^lt precipitated or fallen to the bottom of the viessel/ Q. In how many states, may bodies exist ? A. Bodies may exist in three states; solid^ fluid, and aerifomi. Thus, ice is water, in a solid form ; apply a moderate heat, it becomes a' fluid — ^water \ apply a strong heat, and it as- sumes the aeriform state — steam or vapour. Q. WhatSs Light ? A. Light is a simple substance, divisible, by the prism, into seven primitive colours; viz. red, orange, yellow, greefi, blue, indigo, and violet. It is refrangible, and has copsiderable influence on many chemical operations. Solar light is here spoken of. Vegetables derive their colour, taste, and odour, from light; hence, warm climates are the most productive of aromatic plants, gums, &c. The leaves of vegetables yield oxygen, or vital air, during the day ; but emit noxious air * at night. Q. What have you to say of heat or caloric? A. THe matter of heat or caloric, is an ex- tremely subtle fluid, that enters, with facility^ and pervades, all substances exposed to its in- fluence; and always tends to equilibrium. The powers of attraction, uncontrolled, would surround us with only solid compact bodies: it is to the opposing agency of caloric, we are in- debted for the varieties of coi\^\^\fc\NRft.^ ^M^^^t which bodies present iVvems^v^^Xa wa ^^««^;^ Hon. When attraciitm ox coKesxoiv ^w^«w>a^ 18» POLITE LEARNING. bodies ax« seen in a solid state: when caloric predominates, in a small degree, they are in a liquid form; but, when in a high degree, they generally assume tiie gaseov^s, or aeriform state, Q. Does caloric pass with equal facility through all substances ? A. No; caloric passes rapidly through metals, less freely through wood or glass, and still more slowly trough any woolen substance. Hence, these, and other bodies, are called good or bad /?onrft/c/or*, accordingly as they receive or trans- mit this fluid more or less rapidly. Q. Is there not a diversity in the capacity of bodies, for receiving caloric ? A. Tl^e is a diversity in the capacity of bodies for receiving caloric: place, for instance, an equal weight of lead, of chalk, and of milk, in a heated oven, and each will require a diflfer- ent quantum of caloric to raise it to the temper- ature of the oven. The lead will receive least; the chalk next ; and the milk most Note, When a body passes from a solid to a fluid, or from a fluid to a gaseous state, calo- ric is absorbed, and becomes latent in the ab- sorbing body. When, on the contrary, a body passes from a gaseous to Si fluid, or from ^ fluid to a solid state, heat is given out, and becomes sensible heat. Q. We often hear the term gas; as oxygen gas, hydrogen gas, &c. — ^pray what is a gas? A, A gas is an aeriform fluid; consisting of some substance chemicaWy (ioic^vcvtdvj\lUcalo- ric, and capable of existiti%ipexm^xvcoJ\>j vei'^>^ CHEMISTRY. IM state, under the pressure, and at the temperature of the atmosphere. Every individual gcis iS| therefore composed of two parts ; first, the par- ticular substance with which the caloric is com- .bined, and which forms the basis of the gasj and, secondly, the caloric itself. Q. Is not water, then, or any other substance, when evaporated by heat,' properly called a gasf A. No ; in mere vapour, tlie union of the caloric, with the substance evaporated, is s^ slight, that the caloric seizes and enters the first colder body it meets, and leaves the substance held in solution, to return to its original form. But, in gaSy the union of caloric with the basis,, or volatilized substance, is such, as p9 tempera* ture of the atmosphere can affect This union can be destroyed only by the ap- plication of some chemical agent, which has a stronger affinity for one of the constituents of the gas, than they have for each other. Every gas is intangible, elastic, and invisible. * All bodies, whether solid or liquid, when vol- atilized by heat, assume either the state of va- poury or that of gas* Q. What is Oxygen? A. Oxygeuj though proved by experiment ta be a simple, and very generally diffused principle,, has never been found in a separate state> It is, therefore, known only by its effects. Several substances, when combined with oxygen, form acids; and many acids, oh bein^ dfe^^v^^^ ^ their oxygen, cease to be suc^V. \\^x\^^,^^•^a» '^'• fenod, that oxygen is the acidi/ymg fna-n.cvpVt^ 190 POLITE LEABMNG. Q. Please to give me some account of oxygen gas J or vital aivy as it is sometimes called. A. Oxygen gas is more ponderous than at- mospheric air, of which, it forms more than one fourth part: it is essential to comhustk)n, to animal life, and to the growth of plants ; it ex- ists in water, in the proportion of B5 in 100 parts; is found combined with many of the metals, -and is a constituent principle in the greater number, if not in all, vegetable and ani- mal substances. Oxygen gas is ob&ined from nitre, by distil- lation; and also from the black oxyde of man- ganese, moistened with sulphuric acid, and ex- posed to heat A variety of beautiful and inter- esting experiments are made with this gas. In every combustion, there is an apsorptloQ of oxygen — ^a disengagement of light, and heat, and an increase of weight, in the products of combustion, equal to the weight of the oxygen absorbed. Q. What is Nitrogen? A. Nitrogen or azote^ is the radical of the nitric acid; and, like oxygen, is never found but in a state of combination. Nitrogen gas is a combination of nitrogen with caloric. It is lighter than atmospheric air: of which it forms 77 parts in a hundred. .It immediately extinguishes animal life, or a light- ed taper immersed in it. The best method of obtaining nitrogen gas, is, to expose a quantity oi ^Mao«^\v^Y\^ ^vc v\ «. vessel, inverted over ^ mVxtxxt^ ^^ Vtwx ^w^'i^ CHEMISTRY. 191 and sulphur. The oxygen will he absorbed, and the nitrogen gaSj or azote^ left behind. ^ Q. What kind of substance is Hydrogen ? A. Hydrogen is not to be obtained in its pure, concrete state. We are acquainted with it, therefore, only in its gaseous form, as we are with oxygen and nitrogen. Hydrogen gas^ or, as it is more commonly called, inflammable air^ is a component part of water: it is twelve times lighter than common air; will not, when alone,||Support combustion; and is destructive to animal life. In cont)ict with common air, it burns brilliantly ; and, mixed with a proportion of oxygen, e:|])lode8 with great violence. ^ Hydrogen gas is obtained, plentifully, by putting a quantity of small nails into a vial, cov- ering them with water, and gradually adding sulphuric acid. The oxygen of the water unites with the iron, , and forms an oxyde of iron: this oxyde is dis-^ solved by the sulphuric acid, and sulphate of iron is produced ; while the hydrogen^ of the water escapes, in the form of gas^ or inflarn- mable air. This gas, combined with oxygen, and ignited, yields the strongest heat that can, in any way be produced. Q. What is Carbon ? A. It appears, from a variety of experimeut&^ that the diamond is notYvitvt xwot^ ^^wsl ^s^qx^ Carbon^ in a state of cryataXVviaSLOU- xsjsc^ 199 POLITE LEARNING. knd more imperfect state. Carbon is obtained from animal and vegetable substances, by com* - bustion; is unalterable and indestructible by time ;* and, in close vessels, by the greatest heat Q. What of "Carbonic acid? A. Carbonic acid, or fixed air, is found in three states ; viz. 1, in a state of gas; as, in wells, tombs, cellars, &c. 2, in a state of mix' ture; as in mineral waters: and 3, in a state of combination; as, in limestonCj chalks, marbk, magnesia, alkalies^ Sac. Carbonic cund gas consists of 28 parts of carbon and 72 of oxygeuj with a portion of caloric. It is much heavier tiian ^mospheric air, or than any of the other gases; so that it may be poured, as a liquid, from one vessel to another. It extinguishes flame, destroys animal life, turns blue vegetables, red, neutralizes alkalies, and precipitates lime- • water. Carbonic add gas is readily procured by * pouring sulphuric acid, diluted with water, upon powdered chalk. The sulphuric acid unites with the chalk, and forms sulphate of lime (or plaster of Paris;) while the carbonic acid is disengaged, and escapes in the form of gas, \Yater may be made to absorb three times its own bulk of this gas; from which it acquires an agreeable, acidulous taste. Q. What have you to say of atmospheric, or common air? Ai Atmospheric, ox c^ommon. air, is not, has been supposed, a sVav^^i ^xsJa^Xas^fc,' compound body; consiaidu^ ol AiwsX.\ " CHEMISTRY. 198 gas, and I nitrogen gas, with a small portion of carbonic acid gasy — say one hundreth part It is invisible, ponderous, inodorons, elastic, and insipid. A considerable portion of this air is decom- posed in its passage through the lungs, during respiration. Thie oxyjgen of the air unites with the blood, and gives it a bright vermilion colour. This is gradually lost, during the circulation; and the blood, assuming a dark purple, returns through the veins, to the lungs: where, it agaia takes its florid hue, from f/esh supplies of oxy- gen. The oxygen, thus taken into the circula- tion, gradually evolves . caldric, as it passes through the. system; hence, what is called ani- mal heat. A person, breathing, exhausts the oxygen of one gallon of atmospheric ait, in one minute; and the same quantity will support the combus- tion of an ordinary, candle for the same length of time, and no longer. Q. What is v/ater ? A. Water is a transparent fluid; composed of 15 parts of hydrogen gas, and 85 of oxygen gas, by weight; or 2 of hydrogen to 1 of oxygen, in bulk* It these two gases be mixed in these proportions, and fired by means of an electric spark, a quantity of water will be generated, just, equal, in weight, to the gases. . Water ex- ists in almost all bodies, of the animal, vegetable, a^d mineral kingdoms. At 32 d^«^%i'^ tjJI ^^Sisv- ^viheifa thermometer, waler \% VT^i«i^** ^^^^s^' \ IM POLITE LEARNING. this temperature, it assumes a liquid form; and at 212^ it is converted into vapour. River, or even rain water, though purer than any other, is never found entirely free from a portion of salts, acids, &c. but may be purified by distillation. Water, by passing through an ignited iron tube, will be decomposed ; the oxygen will unite with the iron, and the hydrogen will escape, in the form of gas. But a better mode of decom- posing it, is that mentioned for obtaining hydro- gen gas, * Q. What is Sulphur ? A. Sulphur is a sin^ple substance, of an orange yellow colour. It burns with a bhie flame, and exhales a strong, penetrating odour. Sulphur burned with substances containing oxygen, forms sulphuric add: which acid, uni- ted to certain bases, forms salts, called sulphates; as, suipHate of soda, or Olauber salt; sulphate of pofashy &c. Q. What kind of substance is Phosphorus? A. Phosphorus is a substance of the consist- ence of wax, of a flesh colour, and, when pure, transparent. It is luminous in the dark, and soluble in alcohol, and in the essential oils. It is procured from bones, which contain phosphate of lime. Phosphorus takes fire at about 100 degrees of Fahrenheit It then combines with the oxygen of the atmosphere, and yields phosphoric acid, Q. What of Alkal\ea> A Alkalies havft an ajcx\di»^ti^^»awv\.^«s^fc.\ p. ■ CHEMISTRT. l$t diange blue vegetable colours into green, (indigo excepted;) effervesce with some acids; and. by combination with them, form neutral salts wfth all. They render oils miscible with water, in forming soaps. Q. How many fixed alkalies are there ? A. There are two fixed alkalies ; potasfij or the vegetable alkali^ and soda^ or the mineral ' alkali. There is also a volatile alkali — am- moniac. \ The vegetable alkali^ potasih, according to Sir Humphrey Davy, the celebrated English chemist, is composed of oxygen, and a metallic basis, called by him potasium. It is obtained from the ashes of vegetables, and from the lees of wine. The mineral alkali, soda, is found in a native state, in Egypt, but is generally obtained from the ashes of marine plants. It is said, by Davy, to be similar in its formation to potash; having for its basis a metal, which he has named so- dium. Alkalies readilv combine with sulphur. If pure liquid alkali be digested upon sulphur, the mix- ture becomes reddish, and is called liver of sul- phur, or sulphuret of alkali. This liver of sulphur dissolves metals; even gold itself. V egetable and mineral alkalies have the prop- erty of forming glass, with silex; without being volatilized by heat The volatile alkali, ammoniac ot VNaxX^^'^^-* is composed of 193 parts ot VvydTO^etv «xA^^ of nitrogen, in 1000. It is uauaW^ o\>Ns^^x'^^^^ Mi t'OLtTE LfiARNtNG. the distillation of animal substances; as, hoofs) horns, bones, &c. > Q. What ^re the constituents of alcohol? A. •Alcoholy or spirits o/toineyis a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. ^ Q, Of what do oils consist ? A. Oils consist of carbon and hydrogen; and ftl^ divided into fixed and volatile. The former are obtained by expredsion-^the latter, by dis* tillation. Q. How are acids formed ? A. ^cids are formed by the combination o( oxygen with certain bases. Which give name t« ' the compounds as, nitric acid; which is com posed of about 80 parts of oxygen, and 20 of nitrogen. Q. What are the general properties of acids ? A. •/icids have a sour, stiptic taste ; effervesce with alkalies, and change blue vegetable colours into red, indigo excepted. They are about forty in number. Q. What kind of substance is alumine? A. Muminey or pure clayy is soft to the touch, and adhesive to the tongue; forms a paste with water, dissolves in every acid, hardens and contracts by fire, and is twice the weight of water. Q. How are metallic substances distinguished? , A. Metals are distinguished by their gravity^ their opacity, or their brilliancy^ They are /bund in the bowels of the earth, in a native or virgin state ; in a ata.l'^ o? o^^^^\Aa\v^ w ^^ ^^xsr? bination. CHEMISTRY. 197 AH metals are soluble in acids; and being so dissolved, they form metallic salts. Gold, silver, and platina, are considered as perfect metalsy being oxydized with more diffi- culty than the others; which are called tmjoer- fect metals. (See mineralogy.) Q. What are Vegetables? , A. Vegetables are organized, living substan- ces; possessing digestive and secreting organs. Vegetables may be considered as the lowest or- der of animated existences. Like animals, they digest their food, and propagate their species. They will grow and vegetate in air in which an- 'Imals have perished. This fact evinces, that, 0iou§h light is essential to their proper growth, ^yet, atmospheric air is not The constituent principles of vegetables are more numerous and complicated^^ than those of minerals. They are defended by a general eov- ering, of bark; which is analogous to the skin of animals, and consists of three parts — ^the cu- ticle, the cellular, and the corticle. The leaves perform an important office in the economy of vegetables; and have been compared to the lungs of animals. They extract, from the atmosphere, the same principles which the roots draw from the earth. Q. What does the term, animal, imply ? A. The term animal, in a general sense, is applied to every thing that is supposed to be alive to the sensations of p\e^\xt^ %xA ^"^xt* Such are, men, quadrupeds^ birds, jishftS'* t«]P* ///e^, and insects. I IW POLITE UEARNING. Linika&as says, that stones grow;^i grow and live; animus groi^, live, an< The cojastituent radical prhxciples of are carbbW, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxyj and pho^phoru^. . Haying thus briefly toufhed upon a of the numerous subjecjts of chemical ' tion, we conclude this article, by obsei there is, perhaps, no branch of scien more wonderfully displays the extent < vine wisdom and goodness than this; a at ihe same time, is more calculated 1 and gratify the inquisitive mind. . , , Note. This brief abstract is here ir ^incipally, with a view of awaldng, a spirit of inquiry ; arid, thereby, lead . to a more minute and useful investigat various ^jecta by which they are surr I ■ \: THE l&ND. !r, if I, ' 't \- I